Title: Ancient Civilizations — LearnCoachAssist

Q: What is Mesopotamia and why is it called the "Cradle of Civilization"?
A: Mesopotamia ("land between the rivers") refers to the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern Iraq. It earned the title because it produced some of the earliest cities, writing systems, and legal codes in human history.

Q: Who were the Sumerians?
A: The Sumerians (c. 4500–1900 BCE) inhabited southern Mesopotamia and created one of the world's first civilizations. They invented cuneiform writing, the wheel, the plow, and built city-states like Ur, Uruk, and Eridu.

Q: What was cuneiform?
A: Cuneiform was the writing system developed by the Sumerians around 3200 BCE, using wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets. It was used for record-keeping, literature, and law for over 3,000 years across multiple Mesopotamian cultures.

Q: What were Sumerian city-states?
A: Sumerian city-states (such as Ur, Uruk, Lagash, and Eridu) were independent political units each ruled by a king or lugal. They featured temples called ziggurats, irrigation systems, and specialized labor forces.

Q: What was a ziggurat?
A: A ziggurat was a massive stepped temple tower built in ancient Mesopotamian cities. They served as religious centers, believed to be the dwelling places of the gods, with the most famous being the Great Ziggurat of Ur.

Q: What was the Epic of Gilgamesh?
A: The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest known works of literature, originating from Sumerian and later Babylonian traditions. It tells the story of King Gilgamesh's quest for immortality and contains a flood narrative predating the biblical account.

Q: Who were the Akkadians?
A: The Akkadians, led by Sargon of Akkad (c. 2334–2279 BCE), created the first known empire in history by conquering Sumerian city-states. Sargon unified Mesopotamia under a single ruler and spread Akkadian as a lingua franca.

Q: Who was Sargon of Akkad?
A: Sargon of Akkad (r. c. 2334–2279 BCE) founded the Akkadian Empire, the world's first empire. He conquered all of Sumer and extended his rule from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, establishing a model for future empires.

Q: Who were the Babylonians?
A: The Babylonians were a Mesopotamian civilization centered in the city of Babylon. Under Hammurabi (r. 1792–1750 BCE) they created a powerful empire and one of the first comprehensive law codes.

Q: What was the Code of Hammurabi?
A: The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1754 BCE) was one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes. It contained 282 laws covering property, trade, family, and criminal matters, with punishments varying by social class.

Q: Who were the Assyrians?
A: The Assyrians built a powerful empire in northern Mesopotamia (c. 2500–609 BCE) known for its fearsome military, iron weapons, and efficient administration. At its peak, the Neo-Assyrian Empire controlled Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Levant.

Q: What was the Neo-Assyrian Empire known for?
A: The Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BCE) was known for its powerful military using cavalry, siege warfare, and iron weapons. It also created the Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, one of the ancient world's greatest collections of knowledge.

Q: What was the Library of Ashurbanipal?
A: The Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh (c. 668–627 BCE) was one of the earliest known libraries, containing over 30,000 cuneiform tablets. It preserved Mesopotamian literature, including the Epic of Gilgamesh, and was crucial for modern understanding of ancient civilizations.

Q: What was the Neo-Babylonian Empire?
A: The Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BCE), under kings like Nebuchadnezzar II, rebuilt Babylon into a magnificent city with the Ishtar Gate and the Hanging Gardens. Nebuchadnezzar also conquered Jerusalem and exiled the Jews.

Q: What were the Hanging Gardens of Babylon?
A: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II, were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Described as elaborate tiered gardens with advanced irrigation, their existence remains debated by historians.

Q: When did ancient Egyptian civilization begin?
A: Ancient Egyptian civilization began around 3100 BCE with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Narmer (Menes). It lasted over 3,000 years, making it one of the longest-lasting civilizations in history.

Q: What were the major periods of ancient Egyptian history?
A: Egyptian history is divided into the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BCE, pyramid building), Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 BCE, cultural golden age), and New Kingdom (1550–1070 BCE, imperial expansion), separated by intermediate periods of instability.

Q: What was the role of the pharaoh in ancient Egypt?
A: The pharaoh was both the political ruler and a divine figure believed to be the living embodiment of the god Horus. Pharaohs owned all land, commanded the army, controlled trade, and were responsible for maintaining maat (cosmic order).

Q: How were the Egyptian pyramids built?
A: The pyramids were built by organized labor forces (not slaves, as once believed) using ramps, levers, and sledges. Thousands of workers quarried, transported, and precisely placed millions of limestone blocks over decades.

Q: Who built the Great Pyramid of Giza?
A: The Great Pyramid of Giza was built for Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops) around 2560 BCE. Standing 481 feet tall, it was the tallest human-made structure for over 3,800 years and is the only surviving Wonder of the Ancient World.

Q: What was the significance of the Sphinx?
A: The Great Sphinx of Giza is a limestone statue with a lion's body and a human head (likely Pharaoh Khafre). Built around 2500 BCE, it served as a guardian figure and remains one of the most iconic monuments of ancient Egypt.

Q: What were hieroglyphics?
A: Hieroglyphics were the formal writing system of ancient Egypt, using pictorial symbols representing sounds and concepts. They were used primarily for religious texts, monumental inscriptions, and official documents from about 3200 BCE to 400 CE.

Q: What was the Rosetta Stone?
A: The Rosetta Stone (196 BCE) contained the same text in hieroglyphics, Demotic, and Greek. Discovered in 1799, it enabled Jean-François Champollion to decipher hieroglyphics in 1822, unlocking the study of ancient Egyptian language and history.

Q: Who was Hatshepsut?
A: Hatshepsut (r. c. 1479–1458 BCE) was one of ancient Egypt's most successful pharaohs and one of the few female rulers. She expanded trade (notably to Punt), built the magnificent mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari, and brought two decades of prosperity.

Q: Who was Ramesses II?
A: Ramesses II ("the Great," r. 1279–1213 BCE) was one of Egypt's most powerful pharaohs, known for military campaigns (Battle of Kadesh), monumental building (Abu Simbel), and a 66-year reign. He signed the earliest known peace treaty with the Hittites.

Q: What was the Book of the Dead?
A: The Book of the Dead was a collection of ancient Egyptian funerary texts containing spells and instructions to guide the deceased through the afterlife. It included the famous "Weighing of the Heart" ceremony before Osiris.

Q: Who was Cleopatra VII?
A: Cleopatra VII (69–30 BCE) was the last active pharaoh of ancient Egypt. She formed political alliances with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Her death marked the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty and Egypt's annexation by Rome.

Q: What was the significance of the Nile River to Egyptian civilization?
A: The Nile River was the lifeblood of Egyptian civilization. Its annual flooding deposited rich silt for agriculture, provided water for irrigation, and served as the primary transportation route. Egyptian life revolved around its predictable flood cycle.

Q: Where did ancient Greek civilization develop?
A: Ancient Greek civilization developed on the Greek peninsula, Aegean islands, and western coast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) from about 800 BCE. Its mountainous terrain encouraged the development of independent city-states (poleis).

Q: What was the Minoan civilization?
A: The Minoan civilization (c. 2700–1450 BCE) flourished on Crete and was Europe's first advanced civilization. Known for the Palace of Knossos, vibrant frescoes, and a maritime trading empire, it may have inspired the legend of the Minotaur.

Q: What was the Mycenaean civilization?
A: The Mycenaean civilization (c. 1600–1100 BCE) was the first major civilization on mainland Greece. Known for warrior culture, massive fortifications, and Linear B script, the Mycenaeans may have fought the Trojan War described by Homer.

Q: What was the Greek polis?
A: A polis was an ancient Greek city-state, an independent political unit with its own government, laws, and military. Major poleis included Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. The polis was the center of Greek political and social life.

Q: How did Athenian democracy work?
A: Athenian democracy (established c. 508 BCE) was a direct democracy where male citizens voted on laws in the Assembly (Ekklesia). Officials were often chosen by lottery. Women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from political participation.

Q: What was Sparta known for?
A: Sparta was a Greek city-state known for its militaristic society. Boys entered military training (agoge) at age 7, and Spartan warriors were among the most feared in the ancient world. Sparta had a unique dual-kingship system.

Q: What was the Battle of Thermopylae?
A: The Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE) saw 300 Spartans under King Leonidas, along with several thousand Greek allies, make a legendary last stand against a massive Persian army under Xerxes. Though defeated, their sacrifice inspired Greek resistance.

Q: What was the Battle of Marathon?
A: The Battle of Marathon (490 BCE) was a decisive Greek victory over the Persian invasion force. Athenian forces, heavily outnumbered, defeated the Persians, preserving Greek independence. Legend says a messenger ran to Athens with the news, inspiring the modern marathon.

Q: Who was Socrates?
A: Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE) was an Athenian philosopher considered the father of Western philosophy. He developed the Socratic method of questioning to pursue truth and was executed for "corrupting the youth" and impiety. He left no writings; his ideas survive through Plato.

Q: Who was Plato?
A: Plato (c. 428–348 BCE) was a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle. He founded the Academy in Athens and wrote philosophical dialogues including The Republic, which explored justice, the ideal state, and the theory of Forms.

Q: Who was Aristotle?
A: Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was a student of Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great. He made foundational contributions to logic, biology, ethics, politics, and metaphysics. His works shaped Western thought for over two millennia.

Q: What was the Hellenistic Period?
A: The Hellenistic Period (323–31 BCE) began after Alexander the Great's death and saw the spread of Greek culture across the Mediterranean and Near East. It was an era of scientific advances, cultural blending, and powerful kingdoms like Ptolemaic Egypt.

Q: What was the Parthenon?
A: The Parthenon was a temple dedicated to Athena, built on the Athenian Acropolis between 447–432 BCE. Designed by architects Ictinus and Callicrates under the supervision of Phidias, it is considered the greatest achievement of classical Greek architecture.

Q: What was the significance of Greek theater?
A: Greek theater originated in Athens as part of festivals honoring Dionysus. It developed tragedy (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides) and comedy (Aristophanes), establishing dramatic forms that remain foundational to Western literature and performance.

Q: When was the Roman Republic established?
A: The Roman Republic was established in 509 BCE after the overthrow of the last Etruscan king, Tarquin the Proud. It was governed by elected officials (consuls, senators) and endured until 27 BCE when Augustus became emperor.

Q: What was the Roman Senate?
A: The Roman Senate was an advisory and legislative body composed of patricians (and later wealthy plebeians). It controlled finances, foreign policy, and provincial governance, wielding enormous influence throughout the Republic.

Q: What was the Conflict of the Orders?
A: The Conflict of the Orders (494–287 BCE) was a prolonged struggle between Rome's patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (commoners) for political equality. It resulted in the creation of the Tribune of the Plebs and the Twelve Tables of law.

Q: What were the Twelve Tables?
A: The Twelve Tables (c. 450 BCE) were the earliest written Roman laws, displayed publicly so all citizens could know their rights. They covered property, family, crime, and procedure, forming the foundation of Roman legal tradition.

Q: What were the Punic Wars?
A: The Punic Wars (264–146 BCE) were three conflicts between Rome and Carthage for control of the western Mediterranean. Rome ultimately destroyed Carthage in 146 BCE, establishing dominance over the region.

Q: Who was Hannibal Barca?
A: Hannibal Barca (247–183 BCE) was a Carthaginian general who famously crossed the Alps with war elephants during the Second Punic War. He won spectacular victories at Cannae (216 BCE) but ultimately failed to conquer Rome.

Q: What was the Pax Romana?
A: The Pax Romana (27 BCE–180 CE) was a roughly 200-year period of peace and stability across the Roman Empire. Trade flourished, infrastructure (roads, aqueducts) expanded, and Roman law and culture spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean.

Q: What was Roman engineering known for?
A: Roman engineering achievements included aqueducts, paved roads, arched bridges, the Colosseum, and concrete construction. These innovations enabled urban growth, military logistics, and public health on an unprecedented scale.

Q: What was the significance of Roman law?
A: Roman law established foundational legal principles including innocent until proven guilty, the right to a fair trial, and the distinction between public and private law. It heavily influenced the legal systems of Europe and the Western world.

Q: What was the fall of the Roman Empire?
A: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE when Germanic leader Odoacer deposed the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus. Causes included barbarian invasions, economic decline, military overextension, and internal political instability.

Q: What was the Indus Valley Civilization?
A: The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) flourished in present-day Pakistan and northwest India. Its major cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, featured advanced urban planning, drainage systems, standardized weights, and a still-undeciphered script.

Q: What were the main features of Mohenjo-daro?
A: Mohenjo-daro was a major Indus Valley city featuring a grid street plan, multi-story buildings, a Great Bath (possibly for ritual use), sophisticated drainage systems, and granaries. It demonstrates remarkable urban planning for its era.

Q: What was the writing system of the Indus Valley?
A: The Indus script consists of short inscriptions found on seals and pottery. Despite numerous attempts, it remains undeciphered, making the Indus Valley one of the least understood major ancient civilizations.

Q: Why did the Indus Valley Civilization decline?
A: The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 1900–1300 BCE) may have been caused by climate change, the drying up of the Sarasvati River, tectonic activity disrupting water systems, or a combination of environmental factors. There is no clear evidence of invasion.

Q: What was the Shang Dynasty?
A: The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) was the first historically verified Chinese dynasty. It developed bronze casting, oracle bone divination, an early writing system, and a stratified social hierarchy centered around a divine king.

Q: What was the significance of oracle bones?
A: Oracle bones were animal bones and turtle shells used for divination during the Shang Dynasty. Questions were carved on them, then heat was applied to create cracks that were interpreted as answers from ancestors or spirits. They provide the earliest Chinese writing.

Q: What was the Zhou Dynasty?
A: The Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) was the longest Chinese dynasty. It introduced the Mandate of Heaven to justify rule, developed feudalism, and during its later period produced the great philosophers Confucius and Laozi.

Q: What was the Mandate of Heaven?
A: The Mandate of Heaven was a Chinese philosophical concept asserting that heaven granted the right to rule to a just emperor. If a ruler became corrupt or incompetent, the mandate could be withdrawn, justifying revolution and dynastic change.

Q: Who was Confucius?
A: Confucius (551–479 BCE) was a Chinese philosopher whose teachings on ethics, family loyalty, respect for elders, and proper governance became the foundation of Confucianism. His ideas shaped Chinese society, government, and education for over 2,000 years.

Q: Who was Laozi?
A: Laozi (c. 6th century BCE) was a legendary Chinese philosopher and the traditional author of the Tao Te Ching, the foundational text of Taoism. He emphasized living in harmony with the Tao (the Way) and the virtue of simplicity.

Q: What was the Qin Dynasty known for?
A: The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) unified China under Emperor Qin Shi Huang. He standardized weights, measures, currency, and writing, built the first Great Wall sections, and was buried with the famous Terracotta Army.

Q: Who was Qin Shi Huang?
A: Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE) was the first emperor to unify China. He standardized Chinese script, measurements, and road widths, connected defensive walls into the Great Wall, and ruthlessly suppressed dissent by burning books and burying scholars alive.

Q: What was the Han Dynasty?
A: The Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) is considered a golden age of Chinese civilization. It established the Silk Road, adopted Confucianism as state philosophy, invented paper, and expanded Chinese territory. The Chinese people still call themselves "Han."

Q: What were the Four Great Inventions of ancient China?
A: The Four Great Inventions are papermaking, printing, gunpowder, and the compass. These innovations, developed across various Chinese dynasties, had transformative impacts on communication, warfare, and navigation worldwide.

Q: What was the Great Wall of China?
A: The Great Wall of China was a series of fortifications built over centuries to protect against northern invaders. Begun during the Qin Dynasty (c. 221 BCE) and expanded by the Ming Dynasty, it stretches over 13,000 miles and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Q: What was the Persian Empire under Darius the Great?
A: Darius the Great (r. 522–486 BCE) expanded the Achaemenid Persian Empire to its greatest extent, from Egypt to India. He built the Royal Road, established satrapies (provinces), and created a standardized currency and legal system.

Q: What was the Royal Road of the Persian Empire?
A: The Royal Road was a 1,600-mile highway built by Darius the Great connecting Susa (in Persia) to Sardis (in Anatolia). It featured relay stations and couriers who could traverse it in about a week, enabling efficient communication across the empire.

Q: What was the system of satrapies?
A: The Persian Empire was divided into satrapies, or provinces, each governed by a satrap (governor) appointed by the king. This decentralized system allowed efficient administration while local customs were generally respected.

Q: What was Zoroastrianism?
A: Zoroastrianism, founded by the prophet Zoroaster (c. 1000 BCE), was the dominant religion of the Persian Empire. It teaches a cosmic struggle between good (Ahura Mazda) and evil (Angra Mainyu) and influenced Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Q: Who was Cyrus the Great?
A: Cyrus the Great (r. 559–530 BCE) founded the Achaemenid Persian Empire by conquering Media, Lydia, and Babylon. He is celebrated for the Cyrus Cylinder, considered an early charter of human rights, and for freeing the Jews from Babylonian captivity.

Q: What was the Battle of Gaugamela?
A: The Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE) was Alexander the Great's decisive victory over the Persian King Darius III. It effectively ended the Achaemenid Empire and gave Alexander control of Persia, marking the beginning of the Hellenistic era in the Near East.

Q: Who were the Phoenicians?
A: The Phoenicians (c. 1500–300 BCE) were a seafaring people based in present-day Lebanon. They were master traders and navigators who established colonies across the Mediterranean, including Carthage, and made a lasting contribution through their alphabet.

Q: What was the Phoenician alphabet?
A: The Phoenician alphabet (c. 1050 BCE) was a writing system of 22 consonant letters. It was the ancestor of the Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew alphabets, making it arguably the most influential writing system in history.

Q: What was Carthage?
A: Carthage was a powerful Phoenician city-state in present-day Tunisia, founded around 814 BCE. It became a major Mediterranean trading power and Rome's greatest rival until its destruction in the Third Punic War (146 BCE).

Q: What was the Maya civilization?
A: The Maya civilization (c. 2000 BCE–1500 CE) flourished in present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras. The Maya built impressive pyramids, developed a complex writing system (hieroglyphs), advanced mathematics (including the concept of zero), and a precise calendar.

Q: What was the Maya writing system?
A: The Maya script was the most sophisticated writing system in the pre-Columbian Americas, using a combination of logograms and syllabic glyphs. It recorded history, astronomy, and rituals on stelae, codices, and building walls.

Q: What was the Maya calendar?
A: The Maya used multiple interlocking calendars, including the Haab' (365-day solar calendar), the Tzolk'in (260-day ritual calendar), and the Long Count for tracking long periods. Their astronomical calculations were remarkably accurate.

Q: What were Maya city-states?
A: Major Maya city-states included Tikal, Palenque, Copán, and Chichén Itzá. Each was an independent political center with monumental architecture, ruled by divine kings who waged wars and formed alliances.

Q: What caused the Classic Maya Collapse?
A: The Classic Maya Collapse (c. 800–1000 CE) saw the abandonment of major southern cities. Causes likely included prolonged drought, warfare, overpopulation, environmental degradation, and political instability. Northern cities like Chichén Itzá continued to thrive.

Q: Who were the Aztecs?
A: The Aztecs (Mexica) built a powerful empire in central Mexico (1300–1521 CE). From their island capital Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City), they dominated surrounding peoples through military conquest and a tribute system.

Q: What was Tenochtitlan?
A: Tenochtitlan was the Aztec capital built on an island in Lake Texcoco, with a population of 200,000–300,000 by 1519. It featured causeways, aqueducts, markets, temples, and the Great Pyramid (Templo Mayor). It was one of the world's largest cities.

Q: What was the Aztec tribute system?
A: The Aztec Empire maintained control through a tribute system where conquered peoples paid regular taxes in goods (textiles, food, precious metals) and sometimes human sacrifices. This system generated enormous wealth but also resentment among subject peoples.

Q: What was the Aztec religion known for?
A: Aztec religion involved numerous deities, with Huitzilopochtli (sun and war god) and Quetzalcoatl (feathered serpent) among the most important. The Aztecs practiced human sacrifice on a large scale, believing it necessary to sustain the sun and cosmic order.

Q: How did the Aztec Empire fall?
A: The Aztec Empire fell in 1521 when Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, allied with discontented indigenous groups, besieged and captured Tenochtitlan. European diseases, especially smallpox, had already devastated the Aztec population.

Q: Who were the Inca?
A: The Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu, c. 1438–1533) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, stretching along the western coast of South America. From their capital Cusco, the Inca ruled over 10 million people across diverse terrain.

Q: What was Machu Picchu?
A: Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel perched high in the Andes Mountains of Peru. Built under Emperor Pachacuti, it likely served as a royal estate and sacred site. It was unknown to the outside world until Hiram Bingham's visit in 1911.

Q: What was the Inca road system?
A: The Inca road system (Qhapaq Ñan) spanned over 25,000 miles across mountains, deserts, and jungles. It included rope bridges, rest stations (tambos), and a relay messenger system (chasquis) that enabled efficient communication and governance.

Q: What was quipu?
A: Quipu (or khipu) was an Inca recording device using knotted strings to store numerical and possibly narrative information. Since the Inca had no written language, quipus were essential for census data, taxation, and administrative records.

Q: How did the Inca Empire fall?
A: The Inca Empire fell to Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in 1533. Pizarro captured Emperor Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca, executed him, and took control. European diseases and internal civil war had already weakened the empire.

Q: What were the Hittites known for?
A: The Hittites (c. 1600–1178 BCE) were an Anatolian civilization known for being among the first to smelt iron, which gave them a military advantage. They rivaled Egypt and signed the world's earliest known peace treaty with Ramesses II after the Battle of Kadesh.

Q: What was the Kingdom of Kush?
A: The Kingdom of Kush (c. 1070 BCE–350 CE) was a powerful Nubian civilization south of Egypt in present-day Sudan. Kushite pharaohs briefly ruled Egypt (25th Dynasty), and the kingdom was known for iron production, pyramids, and trade.

Q: What was the Maurya Empire?
A: The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) was the first empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent, founded by Chandragupta Maurya. Under Emperor Ashoka, it promoted Buddhism, nonviolence, and built an efficient administration.

Q: Who was Ashoka the Great?
A: Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE) was a Mauryan emperor who, after the bloody conquest of Kalinga, converted to Buddhism and promoted nonviolence, religious tolerance, and welfare through his famous rock and pillar edicts throughout India.

Q: What was the Gupta Empire?
A: The Gupta Empire (320–550 CE) is often called the "Golden Age of India." It saw major advances in mathematics (the concept of zero, decimal system), astronomy, literature, and art. Scholars like Aryabhata and Kalidasa flourished during this period.

Q: What was the significance of the concept of zero?
A: The concept of zero as a number was developed by Indian mathematicians during the Gupta period (c. 5th century CE). This revolutionary concept enabled the development of the decimal system and modern mathematics.

Q: What was ancient Egyptian mummification?
A: Mummification was the process of preserving the body for the afterlife, central to Egyptian religious beliefs. It involved removing internal organs, drying the body with natron salt, wrapping it in linen, and placing it in a decorated coffin or sarcophagus.

Q: What was the Olmec civilization?
A: The Olmec civilization (c. 1500–400 BCE) in present-day Mexico is often called the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica. They are known for colossal stone head sculptures, early writing, and the Mesoamerican ballgame, influencing later Maya and Aztec civilizations.

Q: What was the significance of the Phoenician city of Byblos?
A: Byblos was one of the oldest Phoenician cities and a major center for trade, especially papyrus from Egypt. The Greek word for book (biblos) derives from this city's name, reflecting its importance in the spread of writing.