Title: Behavioral Science — LearnCoachAssist

Q: What is classical conditioning?
A: Classical conditioning, discovered by Ivan Pavlov, is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response. Pavlov demonstrated this with dogs salivating to a bell.

Q: What are the four key elements of classical conditioning?
A: The four elements are: UCS (unconditioned stimulus — food), UCR (unconditioned response — salivation), CS (conditioned stimulus — bell), and CR (conditioned response — salivation to bell alone).

Q: What is acquisition in classical conditioning?
A: Acquisition is the initial learning phase where the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus until the conditioned response is established. Timing matters — the CS should precede the UCS.

Q: What is extinction in classical conditioning?
A: Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response gradually diminishes. The association weakens over time without reinforcement.

Q: What is spontaneous recovery?
A: Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period. It shows that extinction doesn't erase the original learning — it suppresses it.

Q: What is stimulus generalization?
A: Stimulus generalization occurs when a conditioned response is triggered by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Example: Little Albert feared not only white rats but also white rabbits and fur coats.

Q: What is stimulus discrimination?
A: Stimulus discrimination is the ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli. The organism responds to the CS but not to other similar stimuli, showing selective learning.

Q: What is higher-order (second-order) conditioning?
A: Higher-order conditioning occurs when a new neutral stimulus is paired with an existing conditioned stimulus to produce a new conditioned response. Example: pairing a light with a bell that already triggers salivation.

Q: What is taste aversion learning?
A: Taste aversion is a one-trial learning phenomenon where an organism avoids a food after a single pairing with illness. It was studied by John Garcia and demonstrates biological preparedness in conditioning.

Q: What is operant conditioning?
A: Operant conditioning, formalized by B.F. Skinner, is learning where behavior is controlled by its consequences — reinforcement increases behavior, punishment decreases it.

Q: What is the law of effect?
A: Edward Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to recur.

Q: What is a Skinner box (operant chamber)?
A: A Skinner box is a laboratory apparatus used to study operant conditioning. It contains a lever or button the animal can press, a food dispenser for reinforcement, and devices to record behavior automatically.

Q: What is positive reinforcement?
A: Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus following a behavior to increase that behavior. Example: giving a child praise after they clean their room makes them more likely to clean again.

Q: What is negative reinforcement?
A: Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus following a behavior to increase that behavior. Example: fastening your seatbelt stops the annoying beeping sound, reinforcing seatbelt use.

Q: What is positive punishment?
A: Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus following a behavior to decrease it. Example: receiving a speeding ticket (added consequence) reduces future speeding behavior.

Q: What is negative punishment?
A: Negative punishment removes a desirable stimulus following a behavior to decrease it. Example: taking away a teenager's phone privileges after breaking curfew.

Q: What is shaping in operant conditioning?
A: Shaping is reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior. Rather than waiting for the exact behavior, each step closer to the goal is reinforced. Skinner used this to teach pigeons to play ping-pong.

Q: What is a fixed-ratio (FR) reinforcement schedule?
A: A fixed-ratio schedule provides reinforcement after a set number of responses. Example: a factory worker paid for every 10 items produced. It produces high rates of responding with brief pauses after reinforcement.

Q: What is a variable-ratio (VR) reinforcement schedule?
A: A variable-ratio schedule provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. Example: slot machines. It produces the highest and most consistent response rates and is very resistant to extinction.

Q: What is a fixed-interval (FI) reinforcement schedule?
A: A fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement for the first response after a set time period. Example: checking mail once daily. It produces a "scalloped" pattern — slow responding after reinforcement, increasing as the interval ends.

Q: What is a variable-interval (VI) reinforcement schedule?
A: A variable-interval schedule provides reinforcement for the first response after an unpredictable time period. Example: pop quizzes. It produces slow, steady responding and is resistant to extinction.

Q: Which schedule of reinforcement is most resistant to extinction?
A: Variable-ratio (VR) schedules produce the most resistance to extinction because the unpredictability of reinforcement keeps the organism responding. This explains why gambling is so addictive.

Q: What is the Premack principle?
A: The Premack principle states that a more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity. Example: "You can play video games after you finish your homework." Also called "Grandma's rule."

Q: What is learned helplessness?
A: Learned helplessness, studied by Martin Seligman, occurs when an organism learns that it has no control over aversive events and stops trying to escape. It is a model for understanding depression in humans.

Q: What is social learning theory?
A: Social learning theory, developed by Albert Bandura, proposes that people learn through observation, imitation, and modeling. It bridges behaviorism and cognitive psychology by including mental processes.

Q: What was the Bobo doll experiment?
A: Bandura's Bobo doll experiment (1961) showed that children who watched an adult behave aggressively toward a Bobo doll imitated that aggressive behavior. It demonstrated observational learning of aggression.

Q: What are the four processes required for observational learning?
A: According to Bandura: 1) Attention (noticing the behavior), 2) Retention (remembering it), 3) Reproduction (ability to perform it), and 4) Motivation (having a reason to imitate it).

Q: What is self-efficacy?
A: Self-efficacy, a concept by Bandura, is one's belief in their ability to succeed in a specific situation or task. High self-efficacy is linked to greater effort, persistence, and resilience.

Q: What is vicarious reinforcement?
A: Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an observer becomes more likely to perform a behavior after seeing someone else rewarded for it. It is a key mechanism in Bandura's social learning theory.

Q: What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
A: Maslow's hierarchy is a five-level pyramid of human needs: 1) Physiological, 2) Safety, 3) Love/belonging, 4) Esteem, 5) Self-actualization. Lower needs must generally be met before higher ones.

Q: What is self-actualization in Maslow's theory?
A: Self-actualization is the highest level of Maslow's hierarchy, representing the fulfillment of one's full potential. Characteristics include creativity, spontaneity, morality, and acceptance of facts.

Q: What is self-determination theory (SDT)?
A: SDT, developed by Deci and Ryan, proposes that intrinsic motivation is driven by three basic psychological needs: autonomy (control), competence (mastery), and relatedness (connection with others).

Q: What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
A: Intrinsic motivation comes from internal satisfaction and enjoyment of the activity itself. Extrinsic motivation comes from external rewards or avoidance of punishment (money, grades, praise).

Q: What is the overjustification effect?
A: The overjustification effect occurs when external rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. If someone enjoys painting and then starts getting paid for it, they may lose interest when the payment stops.

Q: What is drive reduction theory?
A: Drive reduction theory proposes that physiological needs create aroused tension states (drives) that motivate behavior to reduce the drive. Example: hunger (drive) motivates eating (behavior) to restore homeostasis.

Q: What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
A: The Yerkes-Dodson law states that performance increases with arousal to an optimal point, then decreases. Simple tasks benefit from higher arousal, while complex tasks require lower arousal for peak performance.

Q: What is conformity in social psychology?
A: Conformity is adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match group standards. It can result from normative influence (desire to fit in) or informational influence (believing the group knows better).

Q: What was Asch's conformity experiment?
A: Solomon Asch (1951) found that about 75% of participants conformed at least once to a group giving obviously wrong answers about line lengths. It demonstrated the powerful influence of social pressure on judgment.

Q: What is normative social influence?
A: Normative social influence is conformity based on the desire to be liked and accepted by the group. People go along with the group to avoid rejection, even when they privately disagree.

Q: What is informational social influence?
A: Informational social influence is conformity based on the desire to be correct. When uncertain, people look to others for guidance, assuming the group has better information.

Q: What was Milgram's obedience experiment?
A: Stanley Milgram (1963) found that 65% of participants obeyed orders to deliver what they believed were lethal electric shocks to a learner. It demonstrated the power of authority over individual moral judgment.

Q: What factors increase obedience?
A: Obedience increases when: the authority figure is physically close, the authority is from a prestigious institution, the victim is distant or depersonalized, and there are no role models for defiance.

Q: What is the bystander effect?
A: The bystander effect is the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help someone in need when others are present. It was studied by Darley and Latané after the Kitty Genovese case.

Q: What is diffusion of responsibility?
A: Diffusion of responsibility occurs when each person in a group feels less personal responsibility to act because others are present. It is a key explanation for the bystander effect.

Q: What are the five steps of bystander intervention?
A: Latané and Darley's model: 1) Notice the event, 2) Interpret it as an emergency, 3) Assume responsibility, 4) Know how to help, 5) Decide to help. Failure at any step prevents intervention.

Q: What is pluralistic ignorance?
A: Pluralistic ignorance occurs when individuals privately disagree with a norm but assume others accept it, so they go along. In emergencies, everyone looks calm (because others look calm), so no one acts.

Q: What is social facilitation?
A: Social facilitation is the tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when others are present. Robert Zajonc explained it through dominant response theory.

Q: What is social loafing?
A: Social loafing is the tendency to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone. It increases with group size and when individual contributions are not identifiable.

Q: What is deindividuation?
A: Deindividuation is the loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group situations. It can lead to impulsive, deviant, or aggressive behavior (e.g., mob violence, online anonymity).

Q: What is groupthink?
A: Groupthink, described by Irving Janis, occurs when a group's desire for harmony overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives. Symptoms include illusions of invulnerability, collective rationalization, and suppression of dissent.

Q: What is group polarization?
A: Group polarization is the tendency for group discussion to strengthen the dominant initial position of members. If individuals lean toward risk, the group becomes riskier; if cautious, more cautious.

Q: What are Cialdini's six principles of persuasion?
A: Robert Cialdini identified: 1) Reciprocity, 2) Commitment/Consistency, 3) Social proof, 4) Authority, 5) Liking, 6) Scarcity. These principles exploit psychological tendencies to influence behavior.

Q: What is the reciprocity principle?
A: The reciprocity principle states that people feel obligated to return favors. If someone does something for you, you feel compelled to reciprocate. Marketers use free samples to trigger this.

Q: What is social proof?
A: Social proof is the tendency to look to others' behavior to determine the correct action, especially in ambiguous situations. Reviews, testimonials, and "bestseller" labels leverage this principle.

Q: What is the scarcity principle?
A: The scarcity principle states that people value things more when they are rare or in limited supply. "Limited time offer" and "only 3 left" messaging exploits this psychological tendency.

Q: What is the foot-in-the-door technique?
A: The foot-in-the-door technique involves getting someone to agree to a small request first, then following up with a larger request. Compliance with the small request increases likelihood of agreeing to the bigger one.

Q: What is the door-in-the-face technique?
A: The door-in-the-face technique starts with an unreasonably large request that is expected to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. The contrast makes the second request seem more acceptable.

Q: What is nudge theory?
A: Nudge theory, developed by Thaler and Sunstein, proposes that small changes in choice architecture can guide people toward better decisions without restricting freedom. Example: placing healthy food at eye level in cafeterias.

Q: What is a choice architect?
A: A choice architect is anyone who designs the environment in which people make decisions. By organizing options strategically (default settings, option placement), they influence choices without mandating them.

Q: What is libertarian paternalism?
A: Libertarian paternalism is the philosophy behind nudge theory: guiding people toward beneficial choices while preserving their freedom to choose otherwise. It "nudges" but doesn't force.

Q: What is the default effect in nudge theory?
A: The default effect leverages the fact that people tend to stick with pre-selected options. Setting organ donation as the default (opt-out) dramatically increases participation compared to opt-in systems.

Q: What is cognitive dissonance?
A: Cognitive dissonance, identified by Leon Festinger, is the mental discomfort experienced when holding two contradictory beliefs or when behavior conflicts with beliefs. People are motivated to reduce this tension.

Q: How do people reduce cognitive dissonance?
A: People reduce dissonance by: 1) changing their behavior, 2) changing their beliefs, 3) adding new cognitions to justify the inconsistency, or 4) minimizing the importance of the conflict.

Q: What was Festinger's $1/$20 experiment?
A: Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) found that participants paid $1 to lie about a boring task rated it as more enjoyable than those paid $20. The $1 group experienced more dissonance (insufficient justification) and changed their attitude.

Q: What is the dual-process theory of decision-making?
A: Dual-process theory (Kahneman) proposes two systems: System 1 (fast, automatic, intuitive, effortless) and System 2 (slow, deliberate, analytical, effortful). Most daily decisions use System 1.

Q: When does System 2 thinking engage?
A: System 2 engages when tasks require focused attention, complex reasoning, or self-control. Examples include doing math, making important financial decisions, or resisting temptation.

Q: What is bounded rationality?
A: Bounded rationality, proposed by Herbert Simon, suggests that human decision-making is limited by available information, cognitive capacity, and time. People "satisfice" (accept good-enough solutions) rather than optimize.

Q: What is satisficing vs. maximizing?
A: Satisficing means choosing the first option that meets a minimum threshold of acceptability. Maximizing means exhaustively comparing all options to find the absolute best. Maximizers often experience more regret.

Q: What is emotional regulation?
A: Emotional regulation refers to the strategies people use to influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. It is crucial for mental health and social functioning.

Q: What is cognitive reappraisal?
A: Cognitive reappraisal is an emotional regulation strategy that involves reinterpreting the meaning of an emotion-triggering situation to change its emotional impact. Example: viewing a job rejection as an opportunity for growth.

Q: What is expressive suppression?
A: Expressive suppression is an emotional regulation strategy involving inhibiting the outward expression of emotion. Research by James Gross shows it is less effective than reappraisal and can increase physiological stress.

Q: What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
A: The James-Lange theory proposes that we experience emotion after our body's physiological response. We don't cry because we're sad; we feel sad because we cry. Body first, then emotion.

Q: What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
A: The Cannon-Bard theory proposes that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, not sequentially. The thalamus sends signals to both the cortex (emotion) and the body (arousal) at the same time.

Q: What is the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory?
A: The two-factor theory proposes that emotion results from physiological arousal plus cognitive labeling of that arousal. We experience arousal first, then interpret it based on context. Example: heart racing could be fear or excitement.

Q: What is the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)?
A: Hans Selye's GAS describes the body's response to prolonged stress in three stages: 1) Alarm (fight-or-flight activation), 2) Resistance (body adapts to stressor), 3) Exhaustion (resources depleted, vulnerability to illness).

Q: What is the difference between eustress and distress?
A: Eustress is positive, motivating stress that enhances performance (e.g., preparing for a competition). Distress is negative, harmful stress that impairs functioning (e.g., chronic work overload).

Q: What are problem-focused vs. emotion-focused coping?
A: Problem-focused coping directly addresses the stressor (making a plan, seeking information). Emotion-focused coping manages the emotional response (meditation, talking to friends). Both are described by Lazarus and Folkman.

Q: What is the transactional model of stress?
A: Lazarus and Folkman's model proposes that stress results from an individual's appraisal of a situation. Primary appraisal evaluates the threat; secondary appraisal evaluates one's resources to cope.

Q: What is resilience in psychology?
A: Resilience is the ability to adapt well in the face of adversity, trauma, or significant stress. Resilient individuals recover more quickly and may even experience post-traumatic growth.

Q: What is locus of control?
A: Locus of control, proposed by Julian Rotter, refers to whether people believe outcomes are controlled by internal factors (their own actions) or external factors (luck, fate, others). Internal locus is linked to better coping.

Q: What is the elaboration likelihood model (ELM)?
A: The ELM, by Petty and Cacioppo, describes two routes to persuasion: the central route (careful evaluation of arguments) and the peripheral route (relying on superficial cues like attractiveness or credibility).

Q: When do people use the central vs. peripheral route?
A: People use the central route when they are motivated and able to think carefully about a message. The peripheral route is used when motivation or ability is low, relying on heuristics like source attractiveness.

Q: What is the Stanford prison experiment?
A: Philip Zimbardo's (1971) experiment assigned college students to be "guards" or "prisoners" in a mock prison. Guards became abusive and prisoners became passive, demonstrating how situational roles powerfully shape behavior.

Q: What is attribution theory?
A: Attribution theory examines how people explain the causes of behavior. Fritz Heider distinguished between internal attributions (personality) and external attributions (situation).

Q: What is the theory of planned behavior?
A: Ajzen's theory states that behavior is predicted by intention, which is influenced by three factors: attitude toward the behavior, subjective norms (social pressure), and perceived behavioral control.

Q: What are fixed vs. growth mindsets?
A: Carol Dweck's research distinguishes fixed mindset (believing abilities are innate and unchangeable) from growth mindset (believing abilities can be developed through effort). Growth mindset promotes resilience and learning.

Q: What is stereotype threat?
A: Stereotype threat, identified by Claude Steele, occurs when people perform worse because they are aware of a negative stereotype about their group. Example: women underperforming on math tests when gender stereotypes are activated.

Q: What is implicit bias?
A: Implicit bias refers to unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect judgments and behavior. Measured through the Implicit Association Test (IAT), these biases can influence decisions even when people consciously reject prejudice.

Q: What is the contact hypothesis?
A: The contact hypothesis proposes that intergroup contact under favorable conditions reduces prejudice. Conditions include equal status, common goals, intergroup cooperation, and support from authorities.

Q: What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
A: This hypothesis proposes that frustration (being blocked from a goal) always leads to some form of aggression. While the original claim was too strong, frustration is recognized as a significant trigger for aggressive behavior.

Q: What is displacement in behavioral science?
A: Displacement occurs when aggression or negative emotions are redirected toward a safer target because the source of frustration is too powerful or unavailable. Example: yelling at family after a stressful day at work.

Q: What is prosocial behavior?
A: Prosocial behavior is voluntary action intended to benefit others, including helping, sharing, donating, and cooperating. It is influenced by empathy, social norms, and situational factors.

Q: What is the empathy-altruism hypothesis?
A: The empathy-altruism hypothesis, proposed by C. Daniel Batson, states that empathic concern for another person produces altruistic motivation to help, even when there is no personal benefit.

Q: What is delay discounting?
A: Delay discounting is the tendency to devalue rewards as the delay to receiving them increases. It explains why people choose $50 now over $100 in a year and is linked to impulsivity and addiction.

Q: What is token economy?
A: A token economy is a behavior modification system where individuals earn tokens (points, stickers) for desired behaviors and exchange them for rewards. It is based on operant conditioning and used in schools and clinical settings.

Q: What is applied behavior analysis (ABA)?
A: ABA is a systematic approach to understanding and changing behavior using principles of operant conditioning. It is widely used in treating autism spectrum disorder, focusing on reinforcing desired behaviors and reducing problematic ones.

Q: What is habituation?
A: Habituation is the simplest form of learning — a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure. Example: you stop noticing background traffic noise after living near a highway for a while.

Q: What is sensitization?
A: Sensitization is the opposite of habituation — an increase in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, especially if the stimulus is intense or aversive. A repeated loud noise may become more startling over time.

Q: What is escape conditioning?
A: Escape conditioning is a form of negative reinforcement where an organism learns a behavior to terminate an ongoing aversive stimulus. Example: pressing a button to stop a loud buzzer.

Q: What is avoidance conditioning?
A: Avoidance conditioning is learning to perform a behavior to prevent an aversive stimulus from occurring. Example: studying hard to avoid failing a test. The avoidance behavior is maintained by anxiety reduction.