Title: Communication Skills — LearnCoachAssist

Q: What are the 7 C's of Communication?
A: Clarity, Conciseness, Concreteness, Correctness, Coherence, Completeness, Courtesy — a framework ensuring messages are effective and well-received.

Q: What is active listening?
A: Fully concentrating on the speaker, understanding their message, responding thoughtfully, and retaining what was said — rather than passively hearing words. Involves eye contact, nodding, paraphrasing, and asking clarifying questions.

Q: Name the three components of Albert Mehrabian's communication model.
A: Words (7%), Tone of voice (38%), and Body language (55%) — applies specifically to conveying feelings and attitudes, not all communication.

Q: What is nonverbal communication? Give examples.
A: Communication without words. Examples: facial expressions, gestures, posture, eye contact, personal space (proxemics), touch (haptics), and appearance.

Q: What is the difference between assertive and aggressive communication?
A: Assertive: expressing needs/opinions clearly and respectfully while considering others' rights.
Aggressive: expressing needs/opinions in a hostile way that violates others' rights.

Q: What are the four communication styles?
A: 1. Passive — avoids expressing feelings
2. Aggressive — expresses at others' expense
3. Passive-aggressive — appears passive but acts out indirectly
4. Assertive — expresses clearly and respectfully (ideal)

Q: What is an "I" statement and why is it effective?
A: A statement framed as "I feel ___ when ___ because ___." It expresses feelings without blaming others, reducing defensiveness. Example: "I feel frustrated when meetings start late because it cuts into my work time."

Q: What is empathic listening?
A: Listening with the intent to understand the speaker's perspective and emotions, not just their words. You reflect feelings back: "It sounds like you're feeling overwhelmed."

Q: What is the feedback sandwich technique?
A: Delivering constructive criticism between two positive comments:
1. Positive feedback
2. Constructive criticism
3. Positive encouragement
Helps the receiver stay open to improvement.

Q: What does paraphrasing accomplish in communication?
A: It confirms understanding by restating the speaker's message in your own words. Shows active listening and helps clarify misunderstandings. Example: "So what you're saying is…"

Q: What is psychological safety in team communication?
A: A shared belief that the team is safe for interpersonal risk-taking — members feel comfortable speaking up, asking questions, admitting mistakes, and proposing ideas without fear of punishment or embarrassment.

Q: Define emotional intelligence (EQ) in the context of communication.
A: The ability to recognize, understand, and manage your own emotions and those of others. Key components: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills (Daniel Goleman's model).

Q: What are open-ended questions and when should you use them?
A: Questions that cannot be answered with "yes" or "no" — they begin with what, how, why, tell me about. Use them to encourage deeper discussion, explore ideas, and build rapport.

Q: What are common barriers to effective communication?
A: Physical: noise, distance
Psychological: stress, bias, assumptions
Language: jargon, ambiguity
Cultural: different norms/values
Perceptual: stereotypes, selective listening

Q: What is mirroring in communication?
A: Subtly copying another person's body language, speech patterns, or tone to build rapport and trust. It signals empathy and connection and is often done unconsciously.

Q: What is the STAR method for structured communication?
A: A framework for clear, concise responses:
Situation — set the context
Task — describe the challenge
Action — explain what you did
Result — share the outcome

Q: How does cognitive bias affect communication?
A: Biases like confirmation bias (favoring info that confirms beliefs), halo effect (one trait influencing overall impression), and anchoring (over-relying on first info) distort how we send, receive, and interpret messages.

Q: What is Nonviolent Communication (NVC)?
A: A framework by Marshall Rosenberg with four steps:
1. Observe without evaluating
2. State your feelings
3. Identify your needs
4. Make a specific request
Promotes compassionate dialogue.

Q: What is the difference between hearing and listening?
A: Hearing is the passive, physiological process of perceiving sound.
Listening is the active, cognitive process of interpreting, understanding, and responding to what is heard.

Q: What is code-switching in communication?
A: Adjusting your language, tone, behavior, or communication style depending on the audience or context — e.g., speaking more formally with executives vs. casually with peers.

Q: What role does silence play in effective communication?
A: Silence can: allow the speaker time to think, signal active listening, create space for reflection, build tension for emphasis, and invite the other person to share more. Skilled communicators use pauses intentionally.

Q: What is constructive feedback and how should it be delivered?
A: Feedback aimed at improvement, not criticism. Best practices: be specific (not vague), timely, focused on behavior (not personality), actionable, and delivered privately when sensitive.

Q: What is the Ladder of Inference?
A: A model by Chris Argyris showing how we move from observing data → selecting data → adding meaning → making assumptions → drawing conclusions → adopting beliefs → taking action. Awareness of this ladder prevents miscommunication.

Q: What is high-context vs. low-context communication?
A: High-context (e.g., Japan, Arab countries): meaning is embedded in context, relationships, and nonverbal cues.
Low-context (e.g., USA, Germany): meaning is explicit in the words spoken. Understanding this prevents cross-cultural miscommunication.

Q: What are paralinguistics?
A: The vocal elements beyond words: tone, pitch, volume, speed, rhythm, and pauses. They convey emotion, emphasis, and meaning — saying "That's great" sarcastically vs. enthusiastically changes the entire message.

Q: What is the SBI feedback model?
A: Situation — describe when/where
Behavior — describe the specific behavior observed
Impact — explain the effect of that behavior
Example: "In yesterday's meeting (S), when you interrupted the presenter (B), it made the team hesitant to share ideas (I)."

Q: What is rapport and how do you build it?
A: A harmonious relationship with mutual understanding. Build it by: finding common ground, active listening, matching energy/tone, showing genuine interest, using the person's name, and being authentic.

Q: What causes miscommunication most often?
A: Assumptions — assuming the other person has the same context, knowledge, or interpretation as you. Other top causes: unclear language, emotional reactions, cultural differences, and not confirming understanding.

Q: What is radical candor?
A: A management framework by Kim Scott: care personally while challenging directly. The goal is honest, kind feedback. The opposite extremes are: ruinous empathy (caring but not challenging), obnoxious aggression (challenging without caring), and manipulative insincerity (neither).

Q: How can you improve communication in remote/virtual settings?
A: Turn cameras on when possible, over-communicate context (no hallway chats), use written summaries after meetings, be mindful of time zones, use async communication tools wisely, and check in on team morale regularly.

Q: What is the Johari Window?
A: A model by Luft & Ingham with four quadrants:
1. Open — known to self & others
2. Blind — known to others, not self
3. Hidden — known to self, not others
4. Unknown — known to neither
Expanding the "Open" area through feedback and self-disclosure improves communication.

Q: What are Aristotle's three modes of persuasion?
A: Ethos — credibility/character of the speaker
Pathos — emotional appeal to the audience
Logos — logical argument and evidence
Effective communicators blend all three to persuade.

Q: What are the five Thomas-Kilmann conflict styles?
A: 1. Competing — assertive, uncooperative (win-lose)
2. Accommodating — unassertive, cooperative (lose-win)
3. Avoiding — unassertive, uncooperative (lose-lose)
4. Collaborating — assertive, cooperative (win-win)
5. Compromising — moderate on both (split the difference)

Q: What is Transactional Analysis (TA) in communication?
A: Eric Berne's model identifying three ego states in every person:
Parent — nurturing or critical
Adult — rational, fact-based
Child — emotional, spontaneous
Effective communication happens when ego states are complementary (e.g., Adult↔Adult).

Q: What is media richness theory?
A: Theory by Daft & Lengel: communication channels vary in richness.
Richest: face-to-face (immediate feedback, nonverbal cues)
Leanest: formal written documents
Match the channel richness to message complexity — use richer media for ambiguous or sensitive topics.

Q: What is a Crucial Conversation and how do you handle one?
A: A conversation with high stakes, strong emotions, and differing opinions (Patterson et al.). Handle it by: starting with heart (clarify your intent), making it safe, mastering your stories (separate fact from interpretation), and seeking mutual purpose.

Q: What is Socratic questioning?
A: A disciplined method of asking probing questions to stimulate critical thinking:
• Clarification: "What do you mean by…?"
• Assumptions: "What are you assuming?"
• Evidence: "How do you know this?"
• Perspectives: "What would others say?"
• Implications: "What follows from that?"

Q: What is reframing in communication?
A: Changing the way a situation or statement is perceived by presenting it in a different context or perspective. Example: instead of "We failed to hit the target," reframe as "We learned what doesn't work and can now adjust." Shifts focus from problem to opportunity.

Q: What is Gibb's Supportive vs. Defensive Climate model?
A: Jack Gibb identified six behavior pairs:
Defensive → Supportive
Evaluation → Description
Control → Problem orientation
Strategy → Spontaneity
Neutrality → Empathy
Superiority → Equality
Certainty → Provisionalism
Supportive climates foster open communication.

Q: What is the curse of knowledge bias?
A: When someone who knows a topic well struggles to explain it simply because they can't remember what it's like not to know it. Overcome it by: using analogies, checking for understanding, avoiding jargon, and asking "Does this make sense?"

Q: What is proxemics (Edward Hall's spatial zones)?
A: The study of personal space in communication:
Intimate: 0–18 inches (close relationships)
Personal: 18 in–4 ft (friends/family)
Social: 4–12 ft (acquaintances, colleagues)
Public: 12+ ft (presentations, speeches)
Violating expected zones creates discomfort.

Q: What is metacommunication?
A: Communication about communication — talking about how you're talking. Examples: "I notice we keep interrupting each other," or "Can we agree to stay on topic?" It helps resolve process-level issues that block productive dialogue.

Q: What is the DESC script for assertive communication?
A: Describe — state the situation objectively
Express — share your feelings about it
Specify — request a specific change
Consequences — explain positive outcomes of the change
Example: "When reports are late (D), I feel stressed (E). Could you submit by Friday (S)? It'll help us both stay on track (C)."

Q: What is storytelling's role in communication?
A: Stories are 22× more memorable than facts alone (Stanford research). They create emotional connection, simplify complex ideas, and make messages sticky. Structure: character + conflict + resolution. Use them in presentations, leadership, and persuasion.

Q: What is groupthink and how does it harm communication?
A: A phenomenon where desire for group harmony overrides critical thinking. Symptoms: self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, pressure on dissenters. Prevent it by: encouraging dissent, assigning a devil's advocate, seeking outside opinions, and using anonymous input.

Q: What is perception checking?
A: A three-step technique to verify your interpretation:
1. Describe the behavior you noticed
2. Offer two possible interpretations
3. Ask for clarification
Example: "You've been quiet today. Are you busy, or is something bothering you?"

Q: What is the Platinum Rule?
A: "Treat others the way they want to be treated" — an upgrade from the Golden Rule. It requires understanding others' communication preferences, personality styles, and cultural norms rather than projecting your own.

Q: What is self-disclosure and how does it affect relationships?
A: Voluntarily sharing personal information to build trust and deepen connection. Governed by Social Penetration Theory (Altman & Taylor) — relationships develop as disclosure moves from shallow (breadth) to deep (depth). Must be reciprocal and gradual.

Q: What is motivational interviewing (MI)?
A: A counseling approach using four principles (OARS):
Open questions
Affirmations
Reflective listening
Summarizing
Helps people find their own motivation for change by exploring ambivalence without judgment.

Q: What is information overload and how do you prevent it?
A: When the volume of information exceeds a person's ability to process it, leading to poor decisions and stress. Prevent it by: prioritizing key messages, chunking information, using visuals, limiting meeting agendas, and following the "Rule of Three" (three main points).

Q: What is the Shannon-Weaver model of communication?
A: A linear model: Sender → Encoder → Channel → Decoder → Receiver, with noise as interference at any stage. Later updated to include feedback. Useful for identifying where communication breakdowns occur.

Q: What is communication apprehension?
A: Fear or anxiety about real or anticipated communication with others. Ranges from mild nervousness to debilitating stage fright. Manage it with: preparation, practice, deep breathing, positive visualization, and gradual exposure (systematic desensitization).

Q: What is the difference between dialogue and debate?
A: Dialogue: collaborative, seeks understanding, listens to learn, explores assumptions, may change your position.
Debate: competitive, seeks to win, listens to counter, defends assumptions, aims to prove the other wrong.
Effective teams use dialogue for complex problems.

Q: What is emotional hijacking (amygdala hijack)?
A: When strong emotions bypass rational thinking — the amygdala triggers a fight/flight response before the prefrontal cortex can process. In communication, it leads to reactive outbursts. Counter it by: pausing, taking deep breaths, labeling the emotion, and requesting a break if needed.

Q: What is the RACI matrix in team communication?
A: A responsibility chart clarifying roles:
Responsible — does the work
Accountable — makes final decisions
Consulted — provides input before decisions
Informed — kept updated after decisions
Prevents communication gaps and unclear ownership.

Q: What is audience analysis and why does it matter?
A: Assessing your audience's knowledge level, interests, attitudes, needs, and demographics before communicating. It determines your tone, vocabulary, examples, and depth. A message that works for executives may fail with engineers, and vice versa.

Q: What are microexpressions?
A: Brief, involuntary facial expressions lasting 1/25 to 1/5 of a second that reveal true emotions — even when someone is trying to conceal them. The seven universal microexpressions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, and contempt (Paul Ekman).

Q: What is the communication accommodation theory?
A: People adjust their communication style toward (convergence) or away from (divergence) others during interaction. Convergence builds rapport and approval; divergence signals social distance or identity distinction. Example: slowing your speech for a non-native speaker.

Q: What is appreciative inquiry (AI) in team communication?
A: A strengths-based approach using the 4-D cycle:
Discover — "What works well?"
Dream — "What could be?"
Design — "What should be?"
Deliver — "How do we make it happen?"
Focuses on positive potential rather than problems.

Q: What is the Betari Box (cycle of conflict)?
A: A model showing how attitude drives behavior in a loop:
My attitude → My behavior → Your attitude → Your behavior → My attitude…
A negative attitude triggers negative behavior in others, which reinforces your negativity. Breaking the cycle requires consciously choosing a positive attitude first.

Q: What is deep listening (Level 3 listening)?
A: Three levels of listening:
Level 1 — Internal: focused on your own thoughts
Level 2 — Focused: fully attentive to the speaker
Level 3 — Global/Deep: sensing emotion, energy, and what is not being said (body language, tone shifts, hesitations). Used in coaching and therapy.

Q: What is the Rogerian argument model?
A: A persuasion strategy (Carl Rogers) that starts by genuinely acknowledging the opposing view before presenting your own. Structure:
1. State the opposing position fairly
2. Acknowledge its validity
3. Present your position
4. Show how both sides benefit from your proposal
Reduces defensiveness and builds trust.

Q: What is loaded language and why should communicators avoid it?
A: Words carrying strong emotional connotations beyond their literal meaning. Examples: "bureaucrat" vs. "public servant," "scheme" vs. "plan." Loaded language manipulates perception and triggers emotional reactions, undermining objective communication.

Q: What is the Mehrabian-Silent Messages misapplication?
A: Mehrabian's 7-38-55 rule is frequently misquoted as applying to all communication. It actually only applies to incongruent messages about feelings and attitudes. When words and tone conflict, people trust nonverbal cues more. For factual content, words carry far more weight.

Q: What is crosstalk in group communication?
A: When multiple people speak simultaneously or hold side conversations during a meeting. It fragments attention, signals disrespect, and causes information loss. Address it by: establishing turn-taking norms, using a facilitator, or implementing a "one voice at a time" rule.

Q: What is strategic ambiguity?
A: Deliberately using vague or open-ended language to allow multiple interpretations. Used in diplomacy, politics, and leadership to: maintain flexibility, encourage buy-in from diverse groups, or avoid premature commitment. Can backfire if stakeholders need clarity.

Q: What is the THINK filter before speaking?
A: A mindfulness checklist:
T — Is it True?
H — Is it Helpful?
I — Is it Inspiring?
N — Is it Necessary?
K — Is it Kind?
If the answer to most is "no," reconsider saying it.

Q: What is defensive listening?
A: Interpreting innocent comments as personal attacks or criticism. The listener constantly feels targeted, leading to over-reactions and conflict. Caused by insecurity, past trauma, or low trust. Counter it by: pausing before reacting, asking for clarification, and assuming good intent.

Q: What is the Rhetorical Triangle?
A: The relationship between three elements in any communication:
Speaker/Writer (ethos) — credibility
Audience (pathos) — emotional needs
Message (logos) — content/logic
Effective communication balances all three for the given context.

Q: What is a communication audit?
A: A systematic evaluation of an organization's communication effectiveness — examining channels, frequency, clarity, and satisfaction. Methods include surveys, interviews, content analysis, and network mapping. Reveals gaps, bottlenecks, and redundancies.

Q: What is phatic communication?
A: Small talk or social pleasantries that serve a relational rather than informational purpose. Examples: "How are you?", "Nice weather today." It maintains social bonds, signals friendliness, and eases transitions into deeper conversation. Dismissing it can damage rapport.

Q: What is selective listening (filtering)?
A: Hearing only what you want to hear — filtering messages through personal biases, interests, or expectations. The listener ignores or distorts information that contradicts their beliefs. Combat it by: practicing mindfulness, taking notes, and actively seeking disconfirming information.

Q: What is the Satir communication model?
A: Virginia Satir identified five stress-response communication patterns:
1. Placating — people-pleasing, agrees to avoid conflict
2. Blaming — finds fault, dominates
3. Computing — overly rational, detached
4. Distracting — deflects with irrelevance
5. Leveling — authentic, congruent (ideal)

Q: What is the primacy-recency effect in communication?
A: People best remember what they hear first (primacy) and last (recency), while middle content fades. Implication: lead with your strongest point and end with your call to action. Repeat key messages for retention.

Q: What is upward communication vs. downward communication?
A: Downward: from leaders to subordinates (directives, feedback, policies).
Upward: from subordinates to leaders (reports, suggestions, concerns).
Organizations that only use downward communication miss critical ground-level insights. Healthy cultures actively encourage upward communication.

Q: What is the Tuckman model and how does it relate to team communication?
A: Teams progress through stages:
Forming — polite, uncertain (need clear direction)
Storming — conflict, power struggles (need facilitation)
Norming — establishing norms (need reinforcement)
Performing — high collaboration (need autonomy)
Adjourning — wrapping up (need closure)
Communication needs differ at each stage.

Q: What is the halo effect in interpersonal communication?
A: A cognitive bias where a positive impression in one area (e.g., attractiveness, confidence) influences overall judgment of a person. In communication, a charismatic speaker may be perceived as more trustworthy or competent regardless of message quality.

Q: What is convergent vs. divergent thinking in group communication?
A: Divergent: generating many ideas without judgment (brainstorming).
Convergent: evaluating and narrowing ideas to select the best one.
Effective groups clearly separate these phases — mixing them kills creativity ("Yes, but…" during brainstorming).

Q: What are communication rituals and why do they matter?
A: Recurring communication practices that build team culture: daily standups, weekly retrospectives, "wins of the week" sharing, onboarding introductions, or project kickoff meetings. They create predictability, belonging, and shared meaning.

Q: What is the principle of charity in communication?
A: Interpreting others' statements in the most reasonable and favorable way before responding. Assume the strongest version of their argument, not the weakest. Prevents straw-man arguments and fosters constructive dialogue.

Q: What is verbal judo (tactical communication)?
A: A technique by George Thompson for redirecting hostile communication without escalation. Core principles: listen, empathize, ask, paraphrase, and summarize (LEAPS). Uses language to de-escalate conflict rather than meet aggression with aggression.

Q: What is the SCARF model and how does it affect communication?
A: David Rock's model of five social threats/rewards that drive behavior:
Status — relative importance
Certainty — ability to predict
Autonomy — sense of control
Relatedness — feeling of belonging
Fairness — perception of justice
Threatening any of these triggers a defensive response and shuts down communication.

Q: What is the XY problem in communication?
A: Asking about your attempted solution (Y) instead of your actual problem (X). Example: "How do I get the last 3 characters of a filename?" when the real question is "How do I get a file extension?" Leads to wasted effort. Always state the underlying problem.

Q: What is cultural intelligence (CQ)?
A: The capability to function effectively across cultural contexts. Four components:
CQ Drive — motivation to learn about cultures
CQ Knowledge — understanding cultural norms
CQ Strategy — planning for cross-cultural encounters
CQ Action — adapting behavior appropriately

Q: What is face-saving (Goffman's face theory)?
A: Face is a person's public self-image. Face-saving is communication that protects someone's dignity.
Positive face: need to be liked/respected
Negative face: need for autonomy
Skilled communicators deliver difficult messages while preserving the other's face — e.g., giving criticism privately.

Q: What is semantic noise?
A: Interference caused by differences in word meaning between sender and receiver. Examples: jargon unfamiliar to the audience, ambiguous words ("table" the discussion), or culturally specific idioms ("hit it out of the park"). Reduce it by: defining terms, avoiding jargon, and confirming understanding.

Q: What is circular questioning?
A: A systemic therapy technique applied to group/family communication: asking one person to comment on the relationship or behavior between two others. Example: "How do you think your colleague feels when the manager gives that type of feedback?" Reveals hidden dynamics and promotes perspective-taking.

Q: What are communication channels ranked from richest to leanest?
A: 1. Face-to-face
2. Video call
3. Phone call
4. Instant message / chat
5. Email
6. Formal memo / report
Rule of thumb: the more complex, emotional, or ambiguous the message, the richer the channel you should use.

Q: What is the broken record technique?
A: An assertiveness strategy where you calmly repeat your key message without getting sidetracked by manipulation, arguments, or irrelevant points. Example: "I understand, but I'm not able to take on that project right now." Repeat as needed without escalating.

Q: What is the Berlo SMCR model of communication?
A: Source — communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, social system, culture of the sender
Message — content, elements, treatment, structure, code
Channel — the five senses (hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, tasting)
Receiver — same factors as source. Effectiveness depends on alignment between source and receiver.

Q: What is double-bind communication?
A: Sending two contradictory messages simultaneously, making any response "wrong." Example: a parent says "Be spontaneous!" — complying means you're following orders (not spontaneous). Common in dysfunctional relationships. Identified by Gregory Bateson. Creates confusion, anxiety, and communication breakdown.

Q: What is the spotlight effect in communication?
A: The tendency to overestimate how much others notice your appearance, behavior, or mistakes. In communication, it causes excessive self-consciousness and anxiety. Reality: others are far less focused on you than you think. Awareness of this reduces communication apprehension.

Q: What is the fogging technique in assertive communication?
A: Calmly acknowledging a critical or manipulative statement without getting defensive or agreeing fully. Example: "You're always late!" → "You may have a point; I have been late a few times." Deflects aggression while maintaining composure and self-respect.

Q: What is the Pygmalion effect in communication?
A: When higher expectations lead to improved performance — and vice versa (the Golem effect). A manager who communicates belief in a team member's abilities unconsciously provides more support, feedback, and opportunities, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Q: What is negative inquiry as an assertiveness technique?
A: Actively asking for more detail about criticism to disarm the critic and extract useful information. Example: "You said my report was weak — what specifically could I improve?" Turns attacks into constructive dialogue and shows confidence rather than defensiveness.

Q: What is the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion?
A: Petty & Cacioppo's model with two routes:
Central route — audience carefully evaluates arguments (used when motivation and ability are high)
Peripheral route — audience relies on cues like attractiveness, authority, or emotion (when motivation/ability are low)
Tailor your approach to your audience's engagement level.

Q: What is feedforward in communication?
A: Information sent before the main message to prepare the listener. Examples: "I have some bad news…," "This is a quick question," "I need to give you some tough feedback." Sets expectations, reduces surprise, and helps the receiver choose the right listening mode.

Q: What is emotional contagion?
A: The phenomenon where one person's emotions trigger similar emotions in others — moods literally "spread." In communication, an anxious speaker creates anxious listeners; an enthusiastic leader energizes a team. Awareness lets you consciously set the emotional tone.

Q: What is anchoring in negotiation communication?
A: The first number or offer in a negotiation disproportionately influences the final outcome. The anchor sets a reference point that all subsequent discussion revolves around. Tip: make the first offer when well-informed, or re-anchor if the other party sets an unfavorable starting point.

Q: What is the Minto Pyramid Principle for structured communication?
A: Barbara Minto's framework: start with the answer/conclusion first, then group supporting arguments, then provide detailed evidence. Creates a top-down, "so what?" structure. Especially effective in business writing, executive presentations, and emails to busy stakeholders.

Q: What is perspective-taking vs. empathy?
A: Perspective-taking (cognitive): intellectually understanding another's viewpoint — "I see why you think that."
Empathy (affective): emotionally feeling what another person feels — "I feel your frustration."
Both are important; perspective-taking prevents assumptions while empathy builds emotional connection.

Q: What is the bystander effect in group communication?
A: The more people present, the less likely any individual is to speak up, take action, or respond. In meetings: "someone else will raise it." Counter it by: directly addressing individuals by name, assigning roles, and using round-robin formats to ensure all voices are heard.

Q: What is a speech act (Austin & Searle)?
A: The idea that language does things, not just says things. Five types:
Assertive — stating facts ("It's raining")
Directive — requesting/commanding ("Close the door")
Commissive — promising ("I'll be there")
Expressive — feelings ("Congratulations!")
Declarative — changing reality ("You're fired")

Q: What is helicopter communication (zooming in and out)?
A: The ability to shift between high-level/strategic and detail-level/tactical communication as needed. Executives need the 30,000-foot view; engineers need specifics. Skilled communicators read the audience and adjust altitude — summarize for leaders, specify for implementers.

Q: What is a communication contract in teams?
A: An explicit agreement about how team members will communicate: preferred channels, response times, meeting norms, escalation paths, and feedback expectations. Reduces friction caused by mismatched assumptions. Example: "Slack for urgent, email for non-urgent, no meetings on Fridays."

Q: What is the Zeigarnik effect in communication?
A: People remember incomplete or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. In communication: use cliffhangers, open loops, or teasers to keep audiences engaged. "I'll share the results in a moment, but first…" creates anticipation and holds attention.

Q: What is toxic positivity in communication?
A: Dismissing or invalidating negative emotions with forced cheerfulness: "Just stay positive!" or "It could be worse!" Invalidates the other person's experience and shuts down honest communication. Instead, acknowledge the feeling first: "That sounds really difficult. I'm here for you."

Q: What are discourse markers and why do they matter?
A: Words/phrases that organize speech: "however," "in other words," "for example," "to summarize." They signal transitions, clarify structure, and guide the listener through your reasoning. Overuse ("like," "you know," "basically") becomes distracting filler.

Q: What is power distance and how does it affect communication?
A: Hofstede's dimension measuring how much less-powerful people accept unequal power distribution.
High power distance (e.g., India, Malaysia): communication is formal, hierarchical; subordinates rarely challenge authority.
Low power distance (e.g., Denmark, Israel): flat structures; open disagreement with leaders is accepted.

Q: What is the pratfall effect?
A: A competent person becomes more likeable after making a small mistake — it makes them relatable and human. In communication: admitting a minor error or vulnerability can increase trust and rapport. Caveat: only works if you're already perceived as competent; repeated errors erode credibility.

Q: What is chunking in communication?
A: Breaking complex information into smaller, manageable pieces (chunks). Based on George Miller's research that working memory holds 7±2 items. Use it in presentations (3 main sections), phone numbers (groups of digits), and instructions (step-by-step). Improves comprehension and retention.

Q: What is the rule of three in communication?
A: Information grouped in threes is inherently more memorable, satisfying, and persuasive. Examples: "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"; "Stop, look, and listen." Use three key points in presentations, three examples in arguments, three items in lists.

Q: What is stonewalling in communication?
A: One of Gottman's "Four Horsemen" — withdrawing from interaction, shutting down, or giving the silent treatment during conflict. It signals contempt and leaves issues unresolved. Counter it by: taking a 20-minute break to self-soothe, then re-engaging with a calmer mindset.

Q: What are Gottman's Four Horsemen of relationship breakdown?
A: Four toxic communication patterns that predict relationship failure:
1. Criticism — attacking character, not behavior
2. Contempt — disrespect, mockery, sarcasm
3. Defensiveness — deflecting blame, making excuses
4. Stonewalling — withdrawing, shutting down
Antidotes: gentle startup, appreciation, taking responsibility, self-soothing.

Q: What is the peak-end rule in communication?
A: People judge an experience based on its most intense moment (peak) and how it ended, not the average. In presentations and meetings: create a memorable highlight and end strong. A powerful closing statement matters more than a perfect middle.

Q: What is collaborative language?
A: Using inclusive words that signal partnership rather than hierarchy or opposition.
Collaborative: "we," "let's," "together," "how might we…"
Divisive: "you need to," "I told you," "that's your problem"
Collaborative language increases buy-in and reduces resistance.

Q: What is the availability heuristic in communication?
A: People overweight information that comes to mind easily — usually vivid, recent, or emotional examples. A single dramatic anecdote can outweigh statistical evidence. Communicators can leverage this (use vivid stories) or guard against it (insist on data over anecdotes).

Q: What is monologic vs. dialogic communication?
A: Monologic: one-way, speaker-centered; treats audience as passive receivers. The speaker's goal dominates.
Dialogic: two-way, relational; treats all parties as active participants. Seeks mutual understanding.
Ethical communication favors dialogic approaches — they respect the audience's agency and intelligence.

Q: What is the Dunning-Kruger effect in communication?
A: People with limited knowledge on a topic tend to overestimate their competence, while experts tend to underestimate theirs. In communication: unskilled communicators may not realize they're ineffective, and skilled communicators may hold back. Seek honest feedback to calibrate self-perception.

Q: What is procedural communication?
A: Communication focused on how a group works together — setting agendas, managing time, clarifying roles, and establishing decision-making processes. Distinct from task communication (the what) and relational communication (the who). Often neglected but critical for productive meetings.

Q: What is the backfire effect?
A: When presenting evidence against someone's deeply held belief actually strengthens their original position. In communication: avoid directly attacking beliefs. Instead, use questions, shared values, and storytelling to create openness before introducing contradicting evidence.

Q: What is appreciative feedback vs. evaluative feedback?
A: Appreciative: acknowledges effort and value — "Thank you for staying late to finish this."
Evaluative: judges performance against standards — "Your report met all the criteria."
People need both. Appreciative builds motivation; evaluative guides improvement. Most people receive too little of either.

Q: What is a straw man fallacy in communication?
A: Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. Example: "We should have shorter meetings" → "So you don't think collaboration matters?" Counter it by: restating the original argument accurately, asking "Is that what you meant?", and redirecting to the actual point.

Q: What is the mere exposure effect in communication?
A: People develop preference for things they encounter repeatedly. In communication: consistent visibility (regular updates, check-ins, presence) builds familiarity and trust over time. Also applies to messaging — repeated key themes become more persuasive and accepted.

Q: What is gunnysacking in conflict communication?
A: Storing up grievances over time and then "dumping" them all at once during a conflict. Example: "And another thing — three months ago you also…!" It overwhelms the other person and derails productive discussion. Prevention: address issues as they arise using timely feedback.

Q: What is the ORID method for focused conversation?
A: A facilitation framework by the Institute of Cultural Affairs:
Objective — What happened? (facts)
Reflective — How do you feel about it? (emotions)
Interpretive — What does it mean? (analysis)
Decisional — What will we do? (action)
Guides groups from data to decision systematically.

Q: What is triangulation in communication?
A: Communicating about a person through a third party instead of directly. Example: telling a colleague about your frustration with another teammate instead of addressing it with them. Creates gossip, erodes trust, and avoids resolution. Healthy communication goes direct to the source.

Q: What is the sunk cost fallacy in communication decisions?
A: Continuing a conversation, argument, or communication strategy because of time already invested, not because it's working. Example: persisting with a failing presentation approach because you spent weeks preparing it. Recognize when to pivot — past effort shouldn't dictate future decisions.

Q: What are hedging and boosting in language?
A: Hedging: softening statements to reduce commitment — "It might be…," "I think perhaps…"
Boosting: strengthening statements to show confidence — "Clearly…," "Without a doubt…"
Overhedging sounds uncertain; overboosting sounds arrogant. Match intensity to context and audience.

Q: What is the von Restorff effect (isolation effect)?
A: Items that stand out from their surroundings are remembered better. In communication: make key messages visually or verbally distinct — use contrast, surprise, or novelty. A single unexpected statistic in a presentation is more memorable than ten ordinary ones.

Q: What is psychological reactance?
A: When people feel their freedom of choice is threatened, they push back — even doing the opposite of what's asked. In communication: avoid ultimatums ("You must…"), heavy pressure, or removing options. Instead, offer choices and frame suggestions as possibilities, not mandates.

Q: What is the Iceberg Model of communication?
A: Only ~10% of communication is visible (words, behaviors). The other ~90% is beneath the surface: beliefs, values, past experiences, emotions, cultural conditioning, assumptions, and intentions. To truly understand someone, explore what's below the waterline through curious, non-judgmental questions.

Q: What is looping in communication?
A: A structured active-listening technique: 1. Listen to the speaker
2. Paraphrase what you heard
3. Ask "Did I get that right?"
4. Speaker confirms or corrects
5. Repeat until the speaker feels fully understood
Especially valuable in conflict resolution and therapy (Harville Hendrix's Imago Dialogue).

Q: What is the narrative paradigm (Walter Fisher)?
A: The theory that humans are fundamentally storytelling beings and evaluate communication based on:
Narrative coherence — Does the story make sense internally?
Narrative fidelity — Does it ring true with our experience?
Stories that pass both tests are more persuasive than pure logic.

Q: What is a devil's advocate and why is it valuable?
A: A person deliberately assigned to argue against the group's preferred position to test its strength. Benefits: surfaces blind spots, prevents groupthink, improves decision quality, and encourages critical thinking. Works best when the role is explicitly assigned (not just contrarianism).

Q: What is equivocation?
A: Deliberately using ambiguous language to avoid committing to a clear position. Example: "We'll look into that" (without any commitment to act). Differs from strategic ambiguity in that it's often used to evade accountability rather than maintain flexibility. Erodes trust when overused.

Q: What is the foot-in-the-door technique?
A: A persuasion strategy: start with a small request (easily accepted), then follow with a larger request. People who agree to the small ask feel committed and are more likely to agree to the bigger one. Based on consistency and commitment principles (Cialdini).

Q: What is the door-in-the-face technique?
A: The reverse of foot-in-the-door: start with an unreasonably large request (expected to be refused), then follow with the actual, smaller request. The contrast makes the second request seem more reasonable. Works through reciprocal concessions — "I compromised, so should you."

Q: What is reflective practice in communication?
A: Regularly reviewing your own communication experiences to learn and improve. Methods:
• Journaling after difficult conversations
• Recording and reviewing presentations
• Asking for feedback from trusted peers
• Schön's model: reflection-in-action (during) and reflection-on-action (after)

Q: What is the paradox of choice in communication?
A: Offering too many options overwhelms the receiver and leads to decision paralysis or dissatisfaction (Barry Schwartz). In communication: limit choices to 2–3 options, provide a recommendation, and frame options clearly. "Should we do A or B?" beats "What should we do?"

Q: What is interaction synchrony?
A: The natural, rhythmic coordination of verbal and nonverbal behavior between people in conversation — matching gestures, nodding in rhythm, completing sentences. High synchrony indicates rapport and mutual understanding. Low synchrony suggests disconnection or tension.

Q: What is the mum effect?
A: People's reluctance to deliver bad news — they delay, soften, or distort negative information. In organizations, this creates information bottlenecks and delayed problem-solving. Counter it by: rewarding honesty, creating safe channels for bad news, and modeling "shoot the message, not the messenger."

Q: What is code elaboration (Bernstein's theory)?
A: Basil Bernstein distinguished:
Restricted code — shorthand language relying on shared context (informal, in-groups): "You know what I mean"
Elaborated code — explicit, context-independent language (formal, outsiders can follow)
Mismatches cause confusion — use elaborated code with new audiences and restricted code with established teams.

Q: What is probing as a communication skill?
A: Asking follow-up questions to deepen understanding beyond initial responses. Types:
Clarifying: "What do you mean by…?"
Justifying: "Why do you think that?"
Extending: "Can you tell me more?"
Redirecting: "How does that relate to…?"
Essential in interviews, coaching, and investigations.

Q: What is the contrast principle in persuasion?
A: Perception is influenced by what came immediately before. A moderate proposal seems very reasonable after hearing an extreme one. In communication: present the difficult option first, then the preferred one. Also used in pricing, negotiation, and framing comparisons.

Q: What is structural communication in organizations?
A: The formal paths through which information flows: org charts, reporting lines, official channels. Contrasts with informal communication (grapevine, hallway talk, social networks). Effective organizations need both — formal for clarity and accountability, informal for speed and relationship-building.

Q: What is the ask vs. guess culture?
A: Two communication norms:
Ask culture: it's acceptable to ask for anything; "no" is expected and fine. Direct and explicit.
Guess culture: you only ask if you're fairly sure the answer is yes; asking risks imposing. Indirect and contextual.
Clashes between these styles cause friction — one side seems rude, the other seems passive.

Q: What is the illusion of transparency?
A: The belief that your internal states (feelings, intentions, knowledge) are more obvious to others than they actually are. Speakers think listeners understand more than they do; liars think their deception is more visible. Overcome it by: being explicit, checking understanding, and not assuming people "just know."

Q: What is the SPIN selling questioning model?
A: A consultative communication framework by Neil Rackham:
Situation — gather facts ("What system do you use?")
Problem — uncover pain points ("What challenges do you face?")
Implication — explore consequences ("How does that affect…?")
Need-payoff — reveal value ("Would it help if…?")
Guides conversations from discovery to solution.

Q: What is social loafing in group communication?
A: Individuals exerting less effort in a group than they would alone because their contribution feels less visible. In communication: people speak up less in large meetings. Counter it by: keeping groups small (5-7), assigning specific roles, making individual contributions visible, and using structured turn-taking.

Q: What is the recency bias in feedback?
A: Disproportionately weighting recent events over the full time period when giving feedback. A manager remembers the last two weeks vividly but forgets six months of work. Counter it by: keeping ongoing notes, using a feedback journal, and reviewing the entire period before formal evaluations.

Q: What is the BATNA concept in negotiation communication?
A: Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement (Fisher & Ury). Knowing your BATNA gives you power — you can walk away confidently. Communicate from strength, not desperation. Never reveal your BATNA directly, but let its existence inform your confidence and boundaries.

Q: What is whataboutism in communication?
A: A deflection tactic that responds to criticism by pointing to someone else's faults: "What about when you did…?" It derails the conversation, avoids accountability, and prevents resolution. Counter it by: acknowledging the redirect, then returning to the original issue — "We can discuss that separately. Right now, let's focus on…"

Q: What is the Losada ratio (positivity ratio) in team communication?
A: Research suggesting high-performing teams have a ratio of roughly 3:1 to 6:1 positive-to-negative interactions. Too few positive interactions breed negativity; too many can suppress honest critique. Balance praise, encouragement, and appreciation with candid, constructive challenge.

Q: What is cognitive load theory applied to communication?
A: The brain has limited working memory for processing new information. Overloading it with too much content, jargon, or complexity causes comprehension to collapse. Reduce cognitive load by: simplifying, using visuals, scaffolding new ideas on existing knowledge, and eliminating extraneous information.

Q: What is the Socratic method vs. Socratic questioning?
A: Socratic method: a teaching approach using a series of questions to lead someone to discover the answer themselves — never giving the answer directly.
Socratic questioning: a broader technique of probing questions to deepen critical thinking.
The method is a specific pedagogical application of the questioning style.

Q: What is gaslighting in communication?
A: A form of psychological manipulation where someone makes the victim question their own reality, memory, or perception. Tactics: denying events happened, trivializing feelings ("You're overreacting"), shifting blame, and withholding information. Recognizing it is the first step to addressing it.

Q: What is the Ben Franklin effect?
A: A person who has done you a favor is more likely to do another favor than someone who received a favor from you. Asking for small help (not giving it) builds rapport. In communication: requesting someone's advice or opinion creates investment and positive regard toward you.

Q: What is extemporaneous speaking?
A: Speaking from prepared notes/outline but not reading a script — the most effective presentation style. Combines the confidence of preparation with the naturalness of conversational delivery. Contrasts with: impromptu (no prep), manuscript (read word-for-word), and memorized (recited from memory).

Q: What is the echo chamber effect in communication?
A: When people only encounter information confirming their existing beliefs — amplified by social media algorithms, like-minded groups, and selective exposure. Leads to polarization and weakened critical thinking. Counter it by: seeking diverse perspectives, engaging with opposing views, and practicing intellectual humility.

Q: What is the liking principle (Cialdini)?
A: People are more easily persuaded by those they like. Factors that increase liking: physical attractiveness, similarity, compliments, familiarity, and association with positive things. In communication: build genuine connection before making requests; find common ground; give sincere praise.

Q: What are Cialdini's six principles of influence?
A: 1. Reciprocity — give to receive
2. Commitment/Consistency — honor prior agreements
3. Social proof — follow the crowd
4. Authority — trust experts
5. Liking — favor those we like
6. Scarcity — value what's rare
(Later added a 7th: Unity — shared identity)

Q: What is the Platinum Rule of Feedback?
A: Give feedback the way the receiver needs it, not the way you prefer to give it. Some people need directness; others need encouragement first. Ask: "How do you prefer to receive feedback?" Adapting your style increases the likelihood feedback is heard and acted upon.

Q: What is a retrospective as a communication practice?
A: A structured team meeting to reflect on a completed period/project:
What went well?
What didn't go well?
What will we change?
Creates a safe space for honest reflection, continuous improvement, and shared accountability. Most effective with a neutral facilitator and documented action items.

Q: What is the Gestalt principle of closure in communication?
A: The brain naturally fills in gaps to complete incomplete patterns. In communication: you don't need to say everything — audiences will draw conclusions from context. Use it strategically: imply rather than overstate, leave purposeful gaps for engagement, or ask rhetorical questions.

Q: What is interpersonal deception theory?
A: Buller & Burgoon's theory that deception in face-to-face interaction is dynamic and interactive — both sender and receiver continuously adjust. Deceivers manage information (vagueness), behavior (reduced eye contact), and image (appearing sincere). Detectors watch for leakage cues but are often poor at catching lies.

Q: What is the planning fallacy in project communication?
A: The tendency to underestimate time, costs, and risks while overestimating benefits. In communication: be wary of overly optimistic estimates. Counter it by: using reference class forecasting (base rates from similar projects), adding buffers, and encouraging "pre-mortem" exercises — "Imagine this failed. Why?"

Q: What is appreciative listening?
A: Listening for enjoyment and aesthetic pleasure — music, poetry, storytelling, a speaker's eloquence. One of four listening types alongside:
• Informational (to learn)
• Critical (to evaluate)
• Empathic (to support)
Recognizing which type is needed helps you listen more effectively.

Q: What is the GROW model for coaching conversations?
A: Goal — "What do you want to achieve?"
Reality — "Where are you now?"
Options — "What could you do?"
Will — "What will you do?"
A structured framework (John Whitmore) for guiding someone to their own solution through questions rather than directives.

Q: What is the pratfall of over-preparation in presentations?
A: Over-preparing can make a speaker sound robotic, rehearsed, and inauthentic — losing the natural energy and spontaneity that engage audiences. Balance: prepare your structure and key messages thoroughly, but leave room for conversational delivery, audience interaction, and in-the-moment adjustments.

Q: What is social proof in communication?
A: People follow the actions and opinions of the majority or respected others when uncertain. In communication: use phrases like "Most teams have found…," cite adoption numbers, share testimonials, or reference industry norms. Especially powerful when the proof comes from a peer group similar to the audience.

Q: What is the curse of expertise in technical communication?
A: Experts unconsciously use jargon, skip foundational concepts, and assume shared knowledge that their audience lacks. Results in confusion and disengagement. Overcome it by: using the "explain it to a 12-year-old" test, building from basics, using analogies, and inviting "dumb questions."

Q: What is polarity management in communication?
A: Barry Johnson's framework: some issues are not problems to solve but polarities to manage — ongoing tensions between two interdependent values (e.g., centralization vs. decentralization, candor vs. diplomacy). Communicate both sides' strengths and watch for over-reliance on either pole.

Q: What is the hostile media effect?
A: Partisans on both sides of an issue perceive neutral, balanced reporting as biased against their position. In organizational communication: even fair, balanced messages may be perceived as unfair by strongly invested parties. Acknowledge perspectives explicitly and invite dialogue to mitigate perceived bias.

Q: What is pre-suasion (Robert Cialdini)?
A: The practice of arranging attention before the message to make the audience receptive. What you focus on before a request shapes the response. Example: asking "Are you an adventurous person?" before pitching something new increases agreement. The setup is as important as the ask.

Q: What is the Chatham House Rule?
A: "Participants are free to use the information received, but neither the identity nor the affiliation of the speaker(s) may be revealed." Used to encourage open, candid discussion in sensitive meetings. Invoking it signals psychological safety — speak freely, attribution stays in the room.

Q: What is the serial position effect in presentations?
A: Audiences remember items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a sequence best, while the middle fades. Practical tip: open and close with your strongest points, place less critical content in the middle, and use mid-point recaps to combat the "middle sag."

Q: What is the Overton window in public discourse?
A: The range of ideas the public considers acceptable at a given time. Ideas outside the window are seen as radical. Skilled communicators shift the window gradually by normalizing adjacent ideas. Understanding it helps explain why some messages gain traction and others are dismissed outright.

Q: What is the CEDAR feedback model?
A: Context — set the scene
Examples — provide specific observations
Diagnosis — explore root causes together
Action — agree on next steps
Review — follow up on progress
More collaborative than one-directional models; emphasizes joint problem-solving.

Q: What is the framing effect?
A: The way information is presented changes how it's received — even when the facts are identical.
"90% survival rate" feels better than "10% mortality rate."
Communicators should choose frames deliberately and ethically, and be aware when others frame information to influence decisions.

Q: What is conversational narcissism (Charles Derber)?
A: The tendency to steer conversations back to yourself. Two response types:
Shift response (narcissistic): "That happened to me too! Let me tell you…"
Support response (healthy): "Tell me more about that. How did you handle it?"
Awareness helps you stay focused on the other person.

Q: What is the social exchange theory in communication?
A: Relationships are maintained through a cost-benefit analysis — people continue relationships where rewards (attention, support, information) outweigh costs (time, emotional energy, conflict). In communication: ensure interactions create mutual value; consistently one-sided exchanges erode relationships.

Q: What is the Ringelmann effect in team communication?
A: As group size increases, individual effort decreases proportionally. In communication: larger meetings produce less per-person contribution. Optimize by: limiting meeting size to essential participants, using breakout groups for large sessions, and making contributions individually visible.

Q: What is meta-messaging?
A: The implicit meaning underlying explicit words — what the message says about the relationship or situation. "Do whatever you want" literally grants freedom but meta-communicates disapproval. Reading and managing meta-messages is crucial — conflicts often stem from meta-message misalignment, not content disagreement.

Q: What is the SCQA framework for structured communication?
A: A storytelling structure by Barbara Minto:
Situation — what's the current state?
Complication — what's the problem/change?
Question — what needs to be resolved?
Answer — here's the recommendation
Creates a natural narrative arc that keeps audiences engaged in business communication.

Q: What is anticipatory anxiety in communication?
A: Anxiety experienced before a communication event (presentation, difficult conversation, interview) — often worse than the event itself. Manifests as catastrophizing, avoidance, and physical symptoms. Manage it with: preparation, visualization, breathing exercises, and the realization that anxiety peaks before — not during — performance.

Q: What is the norm of reciprocity in conversation?
A: An unwritten social rule: when someone shares information, shows vulnerability, or does a favor, the other feels obligated to reciprocate. In communication: self-disclosure invites self-disclosure; asking good questions earns good questions in return. Imbalanced reciprocity creates discomfort.

Q: What is the Eisenhower Matrix applied to communication?
A: Prioritize communication using urgency vs. importance:
Urgent + Important: handle immediately (crisis call)
Important + Not urgent: schedule it (strategic planning)
Urgent + Not important: delegate (routine notifications)
Neither: eliminate (unnecessary meetings, CC emails)
Most people over-communicate urgent-but-unimportant items.

Q: What is semantic differential?
A: A measurement technique (Charles Osgood) that maps the connotative meaning of words on bipolar scales (e.g., good-bad, strong-weak, active-passive). It reveals that the same word evokes different emotional associations across people and cultures. Useful for crafting messages that land as intended.

Q: What is the pendulum effect in organizational communication?
A: When organizations overcorrect from one communication extreme to another. Example: after too much top-down control → sudden radical transparency that overwhelms employees. Effective change in communication culture should be gradual and calibrated, not a swing from one pole to the other.

Q: What is the 5 Whys technique in communication?
A: Asking "Why?" five successive times to get from a surface symptom to the root cause. Example:
"The report was late." Why? → "Data wasn't ready." Why? → "The vendor delayed." Why? → "Requirements were unclear." Why? → "We didn't have a kickoff meeting." Root cause: missing process, not individual failure.

Q: What is digital body language (Erica Dhawan)?
A: Nonverbal cues in virtual/written communication: punctuation choices (period vs. exclamation mark), response time, emoji use, video-on/off, message length, and channel choice. Example: a terse "Fine." reads differently than "Fine!" or "Sounds good 👍." Being intentional about digital signals prevents misinterpretation.

Q: What is the bivalence effect in persuasion?
A: Two-sided arguments (presenting both pros and cons) are more persuasive to educated or skeptical audiences than one-sided arguments. Acknowledging weaknesses first builds credibility: "There are some challenges with this approach, but here's why the benefits outweigh them."

Q: What is functional communication in teams?
A: Aubrey Fisher's framework: group messages serve four functions:
1. Task — accomplishing the goal
2. Procedural — managing how the group works
3. Relational — building/maintaining relationships
4. Ego-centric — serving individual needs (often counterproductive)
Balanced groups attend to all four; dysfunctional groups overindex on one.

Q: What is the paradox of tolerance in group communication?
A: Karl Popper's idea: if a group is unlimited in tolerating all viewpoints, it will eventually be overwhelmed by intolerant voices. In practice: teams need communication norms that welcome diverse opinions but have clear boundaries against personal attacks, bad-faith arguments, and derailing.

Q: What is scripting as a communication preparation technique?
A: Writing out exact words for critical moments — opening lines, key transitions, difficult feedback, or asks. Not for reading verbatim, but for ensuring precision in high-stakes situations. Example: scripting the first sentence of a termination conversation or a salary negotiation opener.

Q: What is the 4-7-8 breathing technique for communication anxiety?
A: A calming technique: inhale for 4 seconds, hold for 7, exhale for 8. Activates the parasympathetic nervous system, reducing fight-or-flight responses. Use before presentations, difficult conversations, or any high-anxiety communication moment. Even 2-3 cycles can noticeably reduce tension.

Q: What is the identifiable victim effect?
A: People respond more strongly to a single, named individual's story than to statistics about many. "Maria, a 7-year-old in Honduras…" moves people more than "millions of children." In communication: lead with a specific human story, then support with data. Puts a face on abstract issues.

Q: What is moral reframing in persuasion?
A: Presenting your argument using the moral values of your audience rather than your own. Example: framing environmental policy as "protecting God's creation" for a religious audience vs. "fighting corporate greed" for a progressive one. The same goal, different moral frame — dramatically increases receptivity.

Q: What is a pre-mortem in project communication?
A: A technique (Gary Klein) where the team imagines the project has already failed and brainstorms all possible reasons why. Done before execution. Benefits: surfaces risks, overcomes optimism bias, gives permission to voice concerns, and produces a concrete risk-mitigation plan. More effective than asking "What could go wrong?"

Q: What is the LEAP method for communicating with resistant individuals?
A: Listen reflectively
Empathize with the emotion
Agree on something (find common ground)
Partner to find a solution
Used in mental health, difficult workplace situations, and crisis communication. Avoids the trap of arguing with resistance, which only strengthens it.

Q: What is cognitive reappraisal in communication?
A: Deliberately reinterpreting the meaning of a situation to change your emotional response. Example: instead of "My boss is criticizing me" → "My boss is investing time in my development." Changes your emotional state before you respond, leading to calmer, more constructive communication.

Q: What is the Socratic paradox and its relevance to communication?
A: "I know that I know nothing." In communication: intellectual humility — admitting what you don't know — builds credibility and invites collaboration. It counters the Dunning-Kruger effect and signals openness. Saying "I'm not sure, let me find out" is more trustworthy than bluffing.

Q: What is the ABCDE model for managing communication anxiety?
A: Based on Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (Albert Ellis):
Activating event — the trigger (e.g., upcoming presentation)
Belief — your interpretation ("I'll embarrass myself")
Consequence — emotional response (anxiety)
Dispute — challenge the belief ("What evidence supports that?")
Effect — new, rational belief ("I'm prepared and capable")

Q: What is the anchor-and-adjust heuristic in group decisions?
A: Groups anchor to the first idea presented and make insufficient adjustments. In brainstorming: early suggestions disproportionately shape outcomes. Counter it by: having members write ideas independently first (brainwriting), randomizing speaking order, or using anonymous idea submission before discussion.

Q: What is Schulz von Thun's Four-Sides Model?
A: Every message has four dimensions:
1. Factual — what I inform about (data/content)
2. Self-revealing — what I reveal about myself
3. Relationship — what I think about you/us
4. Appeal — what I want you to do
Example: "It's cold in here" can mean: it's 18°C (fact), I'm cold (self), you should notice (relationship), close the window (appeal). Miscommunication arises when sender and receiver focus on different sides.

Q: What is the negativity bias in communication?
A: People give more weight to negative information than positive — one critical comment outweighs five compliments. In communication: negative feedback is remembered longer, bad first impressions are harder to undo, and bad news spreads faster. Intentionally balance negative messages with genuine positives (not filler praise).

Q: What is the Abilene paradox?
A: A group collectively decides on a course of action that no individual member actually wants — each assumes others want it and stays silent. Opposite of groupthink (which involves genuine consensus). Prevent it by: explicitly asking for dissent, polling privately, and normalizing "I actually disagree."

Q: What is the communication-competence model (Spitzberg & Cupach)?
A: Communication competence requires both:
Effectiveness — achieving your communication goals
Appropriateness — following social/contextual norms
Being effective but inappropriate = aggressive. Being appropriate but ineffective = passive. Competent communicators balance both in every interaction.

Q: What is the inoculation theory of persuasion?
A: Just as vaccines build immunity, exposing people to weak counterarguments strengthens their resistance to future persuasion attempts. In communication: when preparing an audience, present and refute objections preemptively. "Some people will say X, but here's why that doesn't hold…" — this "inoculates" your message.

Q: What is active constructive responding (ACR)?
A: Shelly Gable's model of four ways to respond to someone's good news:
Active Constructive: enthusiastic engagement — "That's amazing! Tell me everything!" ✅
Passive Constructive: understated — "That's nice."
Active Destructive: undermining — "Won't that be stressful?"
Passive Destructive: ignoring — changes subject
Only ACR strengthens relationships.

Q: What is the steel man argument?
A: The opposite of a straw man — presenting someone's argument in its strongest possible form before responding. Shows intellectual integrity, earns respect, and makes your counterargument more credible. "If I understand your best case, it's that… Here's why I still see it differently."

Q: What is affect labeling?
A: Putting emotions into words — "I feel anxious" — which reduces the intensity of the emotion (UCLA research: activates prefrontal cortex, dampens amygdala). In communication: labeling your own emotions creates self-regulation; labeling others' emotions ("You seem frustrated") creates validation and de-escalation.

Q: What is the Watzlawick axiom "One cannot not communicate"?
A: Paul Watzlawick's principle: all behavior in the presence of others is communication — silence, absence, avoidance, and inaction all send messages. Not replying to an email communicates something. Choosing not to attend communicates something. There is no neutral position.

Q: What is the RASA framework for listening (Julian Treasure)?
A: Receive — pay attention to the speaker
Appreciate — use small verbal cues ("hmm," "ah," "really")
Summarize — "So what you're saying is…"
Ask — follow up with questions
A simple, memorable framework for everyday active listening practice.

Q: What is an ad hominem fallacy in communication?
A: Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself. Example: "You can't comment on budgets — you're not even a manager." The speaker's credentials may be relevant context, but don't invalidate a sound argument. Counter it by: redirecting to the substance of the point.

Q: What is the mere-measurement effect?
A: Simply asking someone about their intentions increases the likelihood they'll follow through. Example: "Do you plan to vote?" increases voter turnout. In communication: asking about goals, commitments, or future behavior activates self-accountability. Use it in coaching, management, and behavior change conversations.

Q: What is the spotlight-and-shadow technique in presentations?
A: Deliberately placing attention on what matters (spotlight) and away from what doesn't (shadow). Techniques: spend more time on key points, use emphasis and repetition for critical messages, and quickly move past less important details. What you don't dwell on communicates priorities as much as what you do.

Q: What is the coconut vs. peach cultural metaphor?
A: Peach cultures (e.g., USA): warm and friendly on the surface (soft outside), but have a hard private core. Casual with strangers but boundaries exist.
Coconut cultures (e.g., Germany, Russia): initially reserved (hard shell), but once trust is built, relationships are deep and loyal (soft inside).
Mismatched expectations cause cross-cultural friction.

Q: What is semantic satiation?
A: When a word is repeated so many times it temporarily loses meaning. In communication: over-repeating buzzwords ("synergy," "innovation," "disruption") causes audiences to stop processing them. Use key terms deliberately and sparingly, vary your language, and anchor abstract words to concrete examples.

Q: What is the SAID model for delivering bad news?
A: Setup — prepare the environment and the person ("Can we talk privately?")
Acknowledge — recognize the impact ("I know this isn't easy to hear")
Inform — deliver the news clearly and directly
Do something — provide next steps, support, or resources
Never leave someone with bad news and no path forward.

Q: What is prosody in communication?
A: The rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech — distinct from individual word sounds. Prosody conveys meaning beyond words: a rising intonation signals a question, emphasis on different words changes meaning ("I didn't say HE stole it" vs. "I didn't say he STOLE it"), and flat prosody signals disengagement or depression.

Q: What is the paradox of vulnerability (Brené Brown)?
A: We perceive vulnerability in ourselves as weakness but in others as courage and authenticity. In communication: leaders who share uncertainty, mistakes, or emotions are seen as more trustworthy — not weaker. Vulnerability builds connection, but must be appropriate to context and relationship depth.

Q: What is the information asymmetry problem?
A: When one party has significantly more information than another in a communication exchange. Creates power imbalances, distrust, and poor decisions. Solutions: transparent sharing, teach-backs ("Tell me what you understood"), open-book management, and proactive disclosure of relevant information.

Q: What is the focusing illusion in communication?
A: "Nothing in life is as important as you think it is while you are thinking about it" (Daniel Kahneman). In communication: the topic currently being discussed seems disproportionately important. Counter it by: placing issues in broader context, using relative comparisons, and preventing single-topic tunnel vision in meetings.

Q: What is the SPIKES protocol for delivering bad news?
A: A medical communication framework applicable broadly:
Setting — privacy, sit down, no interruptions
Perception — assess what they already know
Invitation — ask how much detail they want
Knowledge — deliver information clearly
Emotions — respond to emotional reactions empathically
Summary/Strategy — plan next steps together

Q: What is uptalk (high rising terminal)?
A: Ending declarative statements with a rising intonation, making them sound like questions. "I finished the report?" can undermine perceived confidence and authority. Sometimes reflects genuine uncertainty; other times it's a habitual speech pattern. Awareness allows intentional control of vocal patterns.

Q: What is the Matthew effect in communication?
A: "The rich get richer" — those who are already visible, vocal, and credited tend to receive disproportionately more attention and recognition. Quieter team members' contributions get overlooked. Counter it by: actively attributing ideas to their originators, inviting input from quieter members, and documenting contributions.

Q: What is the compromise effect in presenting options?
A: When given three options, people tend to choose the middle one. In communication: if you want option B selected, present it flanked by a lower option (A) and a higher option (C). Also called the "decoy effect" — the extreme options make the target option look like the reasonable choice.

Q: What is temporal discounting in communication?
A: People value immediate rewards over future ones, even when future rewards are larger. In communication: messages about immediate benefits ("You'll save time today") are more motivating than distant ones ("In five years, this will pay off"). Make long-term benefits feel proximate and concrete.

Q: What is the BRIEF framework for concise communication?
A: Joseph McCormack's model:
Background — minimal context
Reason — why this matters
Information — key points (3 max)
End — conclusion/call to action
Follow-up — what comes next
Designed for executive communication where attention spans are short and clarity is paramount.

Q: What is polyphonic communication in organizations?
A: The idea that organizations consist of many voices and narratives rather than a single official story. Healthy organizations allow multiple perspectives to coexist (Bakhtin's concept). Suppressing alternative voices creates resentment; embracing them creates richness but requires skilled facilitation to maintain coherence.

Q: What is the peak performance zone (Yerkes-Dodson law) in communication?
A: A moderate level of arousal/anxiety produces optimal performance. Too little = disengaged, flat delivery. Too much = panic, freeze, stumble. The goal isn't to eliminate nervousness but to channel it into the sweet spot — enough adrenaline for energy and focus, not so much that it impairs thinking.

Q: What is the ladder of abstraction (S.I. Hayakawa)?
A: Language ranges from concrete (specific, sensory: "a red 2019 Toyota Corolla") to abstract (general, conceptual: "transportation"). Effective communicators move up and down the ladder — abstract language inspires and frames, concrete language clarifies and proves. Staying too high = vague; too low = lost in details.

Q: What is the recency effect in impression formation?
A: In ongoing relationships, the most recent interaction disproportionately shapes overall perception. One bad meeting can undo months of goodwill. Implication: be especially intentional in your latest communication — it carries outsized weight. End interactions well; follow up after mistakes quickly.

Q: What is the DARN-CAT framework in motivational interviewing?
A: Listening for "change talk" — signals that someone is moving toward change:
Desire — "I want to…"
Ability — "I could…"
Reasons — "I'd be better off if…"
Need — "I have to…"
Commitment — "I will…"
Activation — "I'm ready to…"
Taking steps — "I already started…"
Reinforcing change talk strengthens motivation.

Q: What is the narrative transportation theory?
A: When a listener becomes mentally immersed in a story, their real-world beliefs shift to align with the narrative. "Transported" audiences are less likely to counter-argue and more likely to adopt the story's perspective. Implication: storytelling is more persuasive than direct argument precisely because it bypasses critical scrutiny.

Q: What is the communication privacy management (CPM) theory?
A: Sandra Petronio's theory: people maintain privacy boundaries around personal information and use rules to decide when, how, and to whom they disclose. When someone shares private information, the receiver becomes a co-owner with responsibilities. Boundary turbulence (violations of disclosure expectations) damages trust.

Q: What is the sleeper effect in persuasion?
A: A message from a low-credibility source can become more persuasive over time — because people forget the source but remember the message. Initially dismissed arguments gain influence as the "discounting cue" (who said it) fades faster than the content. Implication: even rejected messages plant seeds.

Q: What is the SCARF trigger map for difficult conversations?
A: Before a tough conversation, map which SCARF domains (Status, Certainty, Autonomy, Relatedness, Fairness) the message might threaten — then proactively address each:
• Protect status: frame as development, not failure
• Increase certainty: provide clear next steps
• Preserve autonomy: offer choices
• Maintain relatedness: signal you're on their side
• Ensure fairness: explain the process transparently

Q: What is the distinction between sympathy and empathy?
A: Sympathy: feeling for someone — "I'm sorry you're going through that" (pity, distance).
Empathy: feeling with someone — "I can imagine how painful that must be" (connection, shared feeling).
Sympathy can unintentionally create a power gap; empathy levels the field and validates the other's experience.

Q: What is the doorknob moment in communication?
A: When someone reveals their most important concern at the very end of a conversation — often literally as they're about to leave. Common in medical, coaching, and managerial settings. It signals the person needed the entire conversation to feel safe enough to share. Recognize it and create space: "Wait — let's talk about that."

Q: What is the law of diminishing intent?
A: The longer you wait to act on a commitment made during communication, the less likely you are to follow through. Implication: capture action items immediately, set deadlines during the conversation, and follow up within 24 hours. Momentum from the conversation is a perishable asset.

Q: What is the invisible gorilla effect (inattentional blindness)?
A: People miss obvious information when their attention is focused elsewhere (Simons & Chabris). In communication: audiences hyper-focused on one aspect of your message may completely miss another. Don't assume people noticed something just because you said it — repeat critical points and verify understanding.

Q: What is the confidence-competence loop?
A: Perceived confidence influences perceived competence — and vice versa. Speaking with conviction, steady pace, and strong posture makes listeners rate you as more knowledgeable, even controlling for actual content quality. Caveat: over-confidence without substance eventually backfires; the goal is authentic confidence rooted in preparation.

Q: What is consequential communication?
A: Communication where the stakes are real and outcomes matter — performance reviews, negotiations, crisis management, public statements. Requires higher preparation, precision, and awareness than casual communication. Best practices: script key phrases, anticipate reactions, have a plan B, and debrief afterward.

Q: What is the name-letter effect in communication?
A: People have an unconscious preference for the letters in their own name — and by extension, respond more positively when their name is used. Using someone's name in conversation signals respect, attention, and personal connection. Dale Carnegie: "A person's name is to that person the sweetest sound."

Q: What is a thought-terminating cliché?
A: A commonly used phrase that shuts down critical thinking: "It is what it is," "Everything happens for a reason," "That's just how it works." They end discussion without resolution. In communication: recognize when you or others use them to avoid discomfort, and gently push past them — "But why is it that way?"

Q: What is the WIIFM principle?
A: What's In It For Me? — every listener unconsciously asks this. Effective communicators frame messages from the audience's perspective, not their own. Instead of "We need you to update the database," say "Updating the database will save you 2 hours every week." Lead with the benefit to the receiver.

Q: What is the concept of face-negotiation theory (Ting-Toomey)?
A: Builds on Goffman's face theory across cultures. Individualistic cultures prioritize self-face (personal dignity). Collectivist cultures prioritize other-face (preserving others' dignity) and mutual-face (relationship harmony). Conflict styles differ accordingly — direct confrontation vs. indirect mediation.

Q: What is the hostile attribution bias?
A: The tendency to interpret ambiguous behavior as intentionally hostile. A late reply is read as disrespect rather than busyness. A neutral expression is seen as anger. This bias escalates conflict unnecessarily. Counter it by: assuming the most charitable interpretation and asking for clarification before reacting.

Q: What is the foot-in-the-mouth technique?
A: Asking "How are you feeling today?" and waiting for a response before making a request. The person's public commitment to feeling "fine" or "good" creates cognitive consistency pressure — they're more likely to agree to a subsequent prosocial request (e.g., donation) to remain consistent with their self-reported positive state.

Q: What is proactive communication vs. reactive communication?
A: Proactive: sharing information before it's asked for — anticipating needs, addressing concerns early, and providing regular updates.
Reactive: only communicating when prompted or when problems arise.
Proactive communication builds trust and prevents crises; reactive communication creates information vacuums that get filled by assumptions and rumors.

Q: What is the concept of "thin-slicing" (Malcolm Gladwell)?
A: Making rapid judgments based on very thin slices of experience — as little as 2 seconds of observation. People form accurate impressions from minimal cues (tone, expression, posture). Implication: first moments of any interaction carry enormous weight. Be intentional about your opening energy, body language, and words.

Q: What is the authority principle in communication?
A: People are more likely to comply with and believe perceived experts or authority figures. Signals of authority: titles, credentials, uniforms, confident language, and being introduced by someone credible. Ethical use: establish your expertise early. Unethical use: fabricating credentials or exploiting position.

Q: What is the boomerang effect in persuasion?
A: Overly forceful persuasion attempts backfire, pushing the audience further toward their original position. Triggered by: perceived pressure, condescension, or threat to autonomy. Avoid it by: using soft language ("You might consider…"), providing evidence without demanding conclusions, and respecting the audience's right to decide.

Q: What is the teach-back method?
A: After explaining something, ask the receiver to explain it back in their own words. "Just to make sure I was clear — could you walk me through what you'll do?" Tests comprehension without blaming the listener. Far more effective than "Do you understand?" (which people reflexively answer "yes").

Q: What is communication overload vs. communication underload?
A: Overload: too many messages, channels, and meetings — leads to burnout, decision fatigue, and missed critical info.
Underload: insufficient communication — leads to uncertainty, rumors, and disengagement.
The goal is communication adequacy: the right amount, through the right channels, at the right frequency.

Q: What is the endowment effect in communication?
A: People value what they already have more than equivalent things they don't have. In communication: framing a proposal as "keeping" something is more motivating than "gaining" it. "Don't lose your current benefits" is stronger than "Gain new benefits." Loss framing leverages this bias.

Q: What is the onion model of self-disclosure?
A: Altman & Taylor's extension of Social Penetration Theory: personality has layers like an onion.
Outer layer: public information (name, appearance)
Middle layers: attitudes, opinions, preferences
Core: deepest values, fears, and self-concept
Relationships deepen as people peel back layers — but only when disclosure is mutual and gradual.

Q: What is the pratfall of false consensus?
A: The tendency to overestimate how many people share your opinions, values, and behaviors. "Everyone thinks this way" is usually wrong. In communication: don't assume agreement — test it. Poll the room, ask directly, and be prepared for legitimate disagreement. False consensus leads to blind spots and poor decisions.

Q: What is the SBAR communication tool?
A: Situation — what's happening right now?
Background — what's the relevant context?
Assessment — what do I think the problem is?
Recommendation — what do I suggest we do?
Originally from healthcare for critical handoffs. Now used broadly for concise, structured escalation in any high-stakes context.

Q: What is the concept of "holding space"?
A: Being fully present for someone without trying to fix, judge, or redirect. You listen, witness, and support without making it about you. Key behaviors: silence, patience, validation ("That makes sense"), and resisting the urge to offer advice unless asked. Essential in grief, crisis, and emotionally charged moments.

Q: What is the observer effect in communication?
A: People change their behavior when they know they're being observed (related to Hawthorne effect). In meetings: knowing they'll be quoted changes how people speak. In feedback sessions: awareness of documentation alters candor. Create environments where observation doesn't suppress authenticity — explain purpose and ensure safety.

Q: What is the rhetorical question as a persuasion device?
A: A question asked not for an answer but to make the audience think. "Can we really afford to do nothing?" Engages listeners actively (they silently answer), creates emphasis, and leads them toward your conclusion without directly stating it. Overuse dilutes the effect — deploy strategically at key moments.

Q: What is the concept of "strong opinions, weakly held"?
A: A thinking/communication stance: form bold, decisive viewpoints (strong opinions) but update them readily when new evidence appears (weakly held). Avoids two failure modes: wishy-washy non-commitment and stubborn refusal to change. Signals intellectual courage combined with intellectual humility.

Q: What is the coordination problem in team communication?
A: When team members each act rationally on their own information but reach a suboptimal collective outcome because they didn't share or align. Example: two teams unknowingly build overlapping features. Solutions: shared dashboards, regular syncs, boundary-spanning roles, and explicit information-sharing norms.

Q: What is the Rashomon effect in communication?
A: Named after Kurosawa's film: the same event is perceived and described differently by each participant. In workplace conflicts, each side genuinely believes their version. Implication: there's no single "truth" — effective mediators gather all perspectives and focus on shared interests, not on establishing whose story is "right."

Q: What is the concept of "conversational threading"?
A: The ability to track and manage multiple topics within a single conversation — returning to earlier threads, noting unfinished points, and weaving them together. Skilled threading prevents important topics from being dropped and signals deep engagement: "Going back to what you said about…"

Q: What is the scarcity principle in communication?
A: People value what is rare, limited, or about to disappear (Cialdini). In communication: "Only 3 spots left," "This offer expires Friday," "I can only share this once." Creates urgency and perceived value. Ethical use requires genuine scarcity — fabricating it erodes trust when discovered.

Q: What is the dual-process theory (Kahneman) applied to communication?
A: The brain uses two systems:
System 1: fast, automatic, emotional, intuitive
System 2: slow, deliberate, logical, effortful
Most communication is processed by System 1. To engage System 2: use surprising data, ask unexpected questions, or create cognitive disruption. Important decisions need System 2 activation.

Q: What is the accountability ladder in communication?
A: A progression from victim mindset to ownership:
Bottom: "I didn't know" → "It's not my fault" → "I can't"
Top: "I own it" → "I'll find a solution" → "I'll make it happen"
Effective communicators model and encourage language from the upper rungs. The words people use reveal (and reinforce) their accountability level.

Q: What is the exposure effect paradox in organizational communication?
A: Leaders assume their message is heard after saying it once. Research shows messages need 7+ repetitions through multiple channels before they truly land. The communicator is tired of the message long before the audience has absorbed it. Repeat core messages relentlessly — variation in form, consistency in content.

Q: What is the concept of a "communication charter" for teams?
A: A documented agreement covering:
• Preferred channels for different message types
• Expected response times
• Meeting norms (cameras, agendas, note-taking)
• Escalation paths
• Feedback protocols
Created collaboratively and revisited quarterly. Reduces friction caused by unspoken expectations.

Q: What is the cheerleader effect in communication?
A: People appear more attractive/competent in a group than individually — the brain averages faces/impressions. In communication: group presentations can boost individual credibility. Conversely, a strong team member's halo can mask underperformers. Evaluate both group and individual communication quality.

Q: What is the ambiguity effect in decision communication?
A: People avoid options where the probability of a favorable outcome is unknown, preferring known probabilities — even if the unknown option has better expected value. In communication: reduce ambiguity around your proposals. Provide clear probabilities, precedents, and case studies to make your option feel "known."

Q: What is the concept of "generous interpretation"?
A: An intentional practice of interpreting others' words and actions in the most favorable light possible. Related to the principle of charity but more emotionally oriented. Before reacting negatively, ask: "What's the most generous explanation for why they said/did that?" Prevents unnecessary conflict escalation.

Q: What is the HEARD technique for handling complaints?
A: Hear — listen fully without interrupting
Empathize — "I understand how that feels"
Apologize — take responsibility where appropriate
Resolve — offer a concrete solution
Diagnose — identify the root cause to prevent recurrence
Used in customer service and leadership. Addresses both the emotion and the problem.

Q: What is the self-serving bias in communication?
A: Attributing successes to yourself ("I closed the deal because I'm skilled") and failures to external factors ("The market was bad"). In communication: this creates blind spots in self-assessment and conflict with others who see things differently. Counter it by: seeking feedback and practicing honest self-reflection.

Q: What is the RAPID decision framework and how does it improve communication?
A: Recommend — proposes the decision
Agree — must sign off (has veto)
Perform — executes the decision
Input — provides information/opinions
Decide — makes the final call
Clarifies who does what in decision-making, preventing communication gridlock, HIPPO bias (highest-paid person's opinion), and diffused responsibility.

Q: What is signposting in presentations?
A: Verbal cues that tell the audience where you are in your talk: "First, I'll cover…," "Moving on to my second point…," "To summarize…" Functions as a GPS for listeners, reducing cognitive load and helping them follow your structure. Especially critical in long or complex presentations.

Q: What is the curse of fluency?
A: When information is presented too smoothly or simply, audiences underestimate its complexity and overestimate their understanding. They feel they "get it" but haven't processed deeply. Counter it by: introducing deliberate "desirable difficulties" — questions, pauses, or challenges that force deeper engagement.

Q: What is the Socratic Circle (fishbowl discussion)?
A: A discussion format: an inner circle discusses while an outer circle observes. After a set time, roles switch or outer members rotate in. Benefits: focused dialogue, active observation, reduced crosstalk, and equal airtime. Outer circle members listen for patterns, gaps, and insights to contribute when they rotate in.

Q: What is the concept of "undiscussables" (Chris Argyris)?
A: Topics that everyone knows about but no one will openly address — the elephant in the room. Often the most important issues: leadership failures, dysfunctional processes, or interpersonal tensions. Creating space for undiscussables requires psychological safety, explicit invitation, and a culture that rewards candor over comfort.

Q: What is the negativity dominance effect in written communication?
A: In text-based communication (email, chat), neutral messages are perceived as more negative than intended — because tone, facial expression, and vocal warmth are absent. "OK" reads as cold; "Thanks" reads as curt. Mitigate by: adding warmth signals (exclamation marks, emoji, extra words), or switching to richer channels for sensitive topics.

Q: What is the Weber-Fechner law applied to communication?
A: The perception of change is proportional to the baseline. A $10 discount on a $20 item feels huge; on a $2000 item, it's invisible. In communication: the impact of new information depends on context. Frame changes relative to what the audience already knows — make the significance clear, don't assume they'll feel the magnitude.

Q: What is epistemic humility in communication?
A: Recognizing the limits of your own knowledge and communicating accordingly. Phrases: "Based on what I know…," "I could be wrong, but…," "Here's my current understanding…" Not weakness — it signals intellectual honesty, invites correction, and builds credibility. People trust communicators who acknowledge uncertainty over those who feign omniscience.

Q: What is the concept of "communication debt"?
A: Like technical debt: accumulated unresolved communication issues that compound over time. Delayed feedback, unaddressed conflicts, unclear expectations, and skipped check-ins all accrue interest. The longer the debt goes unpaid, the more costly the eventual reckoning. Regular maintenance (1:1s, retros, timely feedback) keeps debt manageable.

Q: What is the PREP framework for concise speaking?
A: Point — state your main message
Reason — explain why
Example — provide evidence or illustration
Point — restate your conclusion
Ideal for impromptu speaking, meeting contributions, and Q&A. Keeps responses focused and prevents rambling. Can be delivered in 30-60 seconds.

Q: What is the self-reference effect in communication?
A: People remember information better when they can relate it to themselves. In communication: make your message personally relevant to the audience. Use "you" language, ask them to imagine scenarios, and connect abstract concepts to their daily experience. Self-relevant information gets deeper processing and stronger encoding.

Q: What is the cocktail party effect?
A: The ability to selectively attend to one conversation in a noisy environment — and to suddenly notice when your name is mentioned elsewhere. In communication: people filter out most information but snap to attention when something is personally relevant. Use names, direct address, and audience-specific hooks to cut through noise.

Q: What is the distinction between "hot" and "cold" empathy gaps?
A: In a cold (calm) state, people underestimate how they'll behave in a hot (emotional) state — and vice versa. "I'd never yell in a meeting" (cold state prediction) often fails under stress. In communication: plan difficult conversations during cold states but anticipate hot-state reactions. Build in pauses and escape valves.

Q: What is organizational silence?
A: When employees collectively withhold opinions, concerns, and ideas from leadership. Causes: fear of retaliation, futility beliefs ("nothing will change"), and implicit norms against dissent. Consequences: missed problems, stifled innovation, disengagement. Break it with: anonymous channels, "ask me anything" sessions, and visible action on raised concerns.

Q: What is the Gruen transfer applied to communication?
A: Originally an architecture concept (shopping malls designed to disorient), applied to communication: deliberately overwhelming or confusing an audience to make them more susceptible to influence. Recognize it in: fast-talking salespeople, jargon-heavy pitches, and rapid topic-switching. Counter it by: slowing down, asking for clarification, and requesting things in writing.

Q: What is the concept of "witness consciousness" in communication?
A: The ability to observe your own thoughts, emotions, and reactions as they happen during communication — without being controlled by them. A metacognitive skill: "I notice I'm getting defensive right now." Creates a gap between stimulus and response, enabling more intentional, less reactive communication.

Q: What is the Reticular Activating System (RAS) and its role in communication?
A: A brain network that filters incoming stimuli based on what you consider important. Once primed on a topic, you notice it everywhere ("red car effect"). In communication: prime your audience's RAS by stating what to listen for before presenting — "Pay attention to three things…" — and they'll selectively absorb those points.

Q: What is the Stockdale paradox applied to leadership communication?
A: Named after Admiral Jim Stockdale: confront the brutal facts of your current reality while maintaining unwavering faith in the eventual outcome. In crisis communication: leaders must be honest about challenges (not sugarcoating) while simultaneously inspiring confidence. Neither blind optimism nor hopeless realism — both truths at once.

Q: What is the concept of "naming the dynamic"?
A: Explicitly calling out what's happening in the room — the pattern, tension, or unspoken process. Example: "I notice we keep circling back to this topic without making a decision," or "It seems like there's hesitation to disagree." Brings hidden dynamics into the open where they can be addressed productively.

Q: What is the generation effect in learning and communication?
A: People remember information better when they actively generate it rather than passively receive it. In communication: instead of telling someone the answer, ask questions that lead them to discover it. Use fill-in-the-blank prompts, brainstorming, and problem-solving exercises rather than pure lecture.

Q: What is the compassion fade?
A: Empathy and willingness to help decrease as the number of victims increases. One person's story moves us; statistics about millions don't. In communication: when presenting large-scale problems, always anchor to a single human story first, then scale up. "Let me tell you about one person affected…" then reveal the broader scope.

Q: What is the OSKAR coaching model?
A: A solutions-focused alternative to GROW:
Outcome — "What do you want to achieve?"
Scaling — "On a 1-10 scale, where are you now?"
Know-how — "What's already working?"
Affirm + Action — acknowledge strengths, plan next step
Review — follow up on progress
Focuses on strengths and what's working rather than problems.

Q: What is the concept of "conversational turn-taking"?
A: The unspoken system governing who speaks when in conversation. Regulated by cues: falling intonation (yielding), eye contact (selecting next speaker), inhaling (claiming the floor), and overlap (competing for turn). Cultures differ — some allow more overlap (Italian, Brazilian); others expect strict turn-taking (Japanese, Finnish).

Q: What is the concept of "voice" in organizations (Hirschman)?
A: Albert Hirschman's framework: when dissatisfied, people can:
Exit — leave the organization
Voice — speak up to change things
Loyalty — stay and endure silently
Organizations that suppress voice get exit or disengaged loyalty. Healthy cultures make voice easy, safe, and productive — because the people who leave first are often the best.

Q: What is the concept of a "third story" (Difficult Conversations)?
A: From Stone, Patton & Heen: in any disagreement, there are three stories — yours, theirs, and the neutral "third story" that an impartial observer would tell. Starting from the third story ("We seem to see this differently…") instead of your own ("You were wrong…") opens dialogue rather than triggering defensiveness.

Q: What is the role of "connective tissue" language?
A: Words and phrases that link ideas together and guide the listener through your reasoning: "because of this…," "which means…," "the implication is…," "building on that…" Without connective tissue, communication feels like a list of disconnected points. With it, ideas flow logically and audiences follow effortlessly.

Q: What is the concept of "conversational equity"?
A: The principle that all participants in a discussion should have roughly equal opportunity to contribute. Google's Project Aristotle found that "equality in distribution of conversational turn-taking" was the strongest predictor of team effectiveness. Monitor it by: tracking who speaks, inviting quiet voices, and curbing dominant ones.

Q: What is the status-leveling technique?
A: Deliberately reducing perceived power distance to encourage open communication. Methods: leaders speaking last (not first), sitting among the team (not at the head), using first names, sharing personal stories, admitting mistakes, and asking genuine questions. The goal is to make the lowest-ranking person feel safe to speak truthfully.

Q: What is the "Yes, and…" principle from improvisational theatre?
A: Accepting what someone offers ("Yes") and building on it ("and…") rather than blocking with "No, but…" In communication: fosters collaborative ideation, validates contributions, and creates momentum. Particularly powerful in brainstorming, creative problem-solving, and navigating difficult conversations where agreement needs to be built incrementally.

Q: What is the phenomenon of "splitting" in team communication?
A: When a group divides into opposing factions with increasingly polarized positions, each demonizing the other. Common in organizational conflict: "management vs. workers," "engineering vs. sales." Address it by: creating shared goals, cross-functional projects, joint problem-solving sessions, and explicitly naming the split dynamic.

Q: What is the concept of "minimum viable communication"?
A: The smallest amount of communication needed to achieve the desired outcome — not more, not less. Avoids both over-communication (meetings about meetings, excessive CCs) and under-communication (assumptions, information gaps). Ask: "What's the simplest way to get this message across effectively to this specific audience?"

Q: What is the ABCD trust model (Ken Blanchard)?
A: Four pillars of trust in communication:
Able — demonstrate competence
Believable — act with integrity and honesty
Connected — show genuine care for others
Dependable — follow through on commitments
Trust breaks when any pillar weakens. Diagnose which pillar is damaged to know what type of communication repair is needed.

Q: What is the concept of "emotional bidding" (Gottman)?
A: Small moments where someone reaches out for connection — a comment, question, gesture, or look. Partners/colleagues can:
Turn toward — engage and acknowledge ✅
Turn away — ignore or miss the bid
Turn against — respond with hostility
Relationships thrive or fail based on the ratio of turning toward vs. away. Most bids are subtle and easily missed.

Q: What is the "What? So What? Now What?" reflection framework?
A: A simple debrief structure:
What? — What happened? (objective facts)
So What? — Why does it matter? (meaning, implications)
Now What? — What do we do about it? (action steps)
Works for after-action reviews, meeting wrap-ups, feedback conversations, and incident retrospectives. Prevents stopping at description without reaching action.

Q: What is the Pelz effect in organizational communication?
A: Employees are more satisfied with communication from leaders who have actual influence over decisions. A manager who listens empathically but has no power to change anything is ultimately seen as ineffective. Implication: combine communication skills with decision-making authority, or be transparent about your actual influence level.

Q: What is the rhetorical device of anaphora?
A: The deliberate repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. "We will fight on the beaches, we will fight on the landing grounds, we will fight in the fields." Creates rhythm, emphasis, and emotional momentum. Powerful in speeches, rallying teams, and making key messages stick.

Q: What is the concept of "clearing" in team communication?
A: A structured practice where team members share anything that's distracting or weighing on them at the start of a meeting — personal or professional. Not for problem-solving, just acknowledgment. Purpose: reduces mental clutter, increases presence, builds vulnerability-based trust, and explains unusual behavior. "I want to clear that I'm distracted today because…"

Q: What is the distinction between content and process in group communication?
A: Content: what the group is discussing (the topic, data, decisions).
Process: how the group is interacting (who speaks, how decisions are made, emotional dynamics).
Most groups focus solely on content and ignore process. Skilled facilitators monitor both simultaneously — "I notice we haven't heard from half the room" is a process observation.

Q: What is the substitution effect in communication?
A: When asked a difficult question, people unconsciously substitute an easier question and answer that instead (Kahneman). "How effective is our strategy?" becomes "How do I feel about our strategy?" In communication: notice when you or others are answering a different question than was asked, and gently redirect.

Q: What is the concept of "skilled incompetence" (Argyris)?
A: Being highly skilled at behaviors that prevent learning — artfully avoiding difficult topics, smoothing over conflict, or giving feedback so diplomatically that the message is lost. The person is genuinely skilled, but their skill produces counterproductive results. Awareness is the first step: "Am I being diplomatic or am I being avoidant?"

Q: What is the concept of "clean language" (David Grove)?
A: A questioning technique that uses the speaker's exact words without introducing the listener's assumptions or interpretations. Questions: "What kind of [X] is that [X]?" "Is there anything else about [X]?" "Where is [X]?" Minimizes contamination of the speaker's internal model. Used in coaching, therapy, and deep interviews.

Q: What is the pendulum swing of feedback culture?
A: Organizations often swing between:
Extreme 1: Brutally honest, feedback-heavy culture (causes anxiety, defensiveness)
Extreme 2: Conflict-avoidant, feedback-averse culture (causes stagnation, resentment)
The healthy middle: regular, normalized, compassionate feedback integrated into daily interactions — not reserved for formal reviews or crises.

Q: What is the concept of "the third turn" in conversation?
A: The critical response after someone answers your question. Most people ask a question (turn 1), get an answer (turn 2), then move on. But turn 3 — "Tell me more," "What made you think that?," "That's interesting because…" — is where depth happens. It signals genuine curiosity and prevents surface-level exchanges.

Q: What is the idiosyncratic rater effect in feedback?
A: Performance ratings say more about the rater than the person being rated — over 60% of rating variance comes from the rater's biases, standards, and personality. Implication: seek feedback from multiple sources, look for patterns across raters (not individual scores), and be skeptical of any single person's assessment.

Q: What is the concept of "generous authority" in facilitation?
A: A facilitator stance combining warmth with firm structure: creating safety (generous) while maintaining clear boundaries, time management, and process (authority). Neither a pushover ("whatever the group wants") nor a dictator ("do it my way"). Signals: "I've got this process handled so you can focus on the content."

Q: What is the SPACE2 model for virtual team communication?
A: A framework for remote collaboration:
Structure — clear roles, processes, and meeting cadence
Process — explicit decision-making and workflows
Atmosphere — psychological safety and team culture
Communication — right tools, norms, and frequency
Energy — engagement, motivation, and well-being
Empowerment — autonomy and trust
Addresses the unique challenges of distributed teams.

Q: What is the concept of "holding the container" in facilitation?
A: The facilitator's role of creating and maintaining a safe, structured space for a group to do difficult work. Involves setting clear agreements, managing energy, absorbing tension without reacting, and trusting the group's process. Like a vessel — the facilitator shapes the boundaries while the group fills them with content.

Q: What is the "say it back" technique in conflict resolution?
A: Before responding to the other party, you must first restate their position to their satisfaction. "Before I share my view, let me make sure I understand yours…" The other person confirms or corrects. Only then do you respond. Forces genuine understanding and dramatically slows escalation.

Q: What is the concept of "conversational intelligence" (C-IQ) (Judith Glaser)?
A: The ability to distinguish between conversations that trigger trust (oxytocin) and those that trigger fear (cortisol). Three levels:
Level 1: Transactional (ask/tell)
Level 2: Positional (advocate/inquire)
Level 3: Transformational (co-create/share)
Level 3 conversations produce the deepest trust and most innovative outcomes.

Q: What is the concept of "presencing" (Otto Scharmer, Theory U)?
A: Listening from the deepest source of your emerging future self — beyond habits (downloading), facts (seeing), or empathy (sensing). Presencing combines open mind, open heart, and open will. In communication: moving past what you already know to what is trying to emerge in the conversation.

Q: What is the "newspaper test" for communication decisions?
A: Before sending a message, ask: "Would I be comfortable if this appeared on the front page of a newspaper?" A gut-check for ethics, tone, and professionalism. Especially valuable for emails, Slack messages, and public statements. If you'd be embarrassed seeing it in print, rewrite before sending.

Q: What is the concept of "underbounded" vs. "overbounded" systems?
A: Underbounded teams: too few communication boundaries — chaotic, information overflows, unclear roles, constant interruptions.
Overbounded teams: too many boundaries — siloed, information hoarded, excessive approvals, rigid hierarchy.
Effective teams calibrate boundaries — enough structure for clarity, enough openness for flow.

Q: What is the distinction between "above the line" and "below the line" communication?
A: Above the line: taking responsibility, curiosity, openness to learning — "What can I learn? How did I contribute to this?"
Below the line: blame, defensiveness, justification — "It's not my fault. They should have…"
The Conscious Leadership Group's framework. The first step is simply noticing where you are. Awareness enables choice.

Q: What is the technique of "advance organizing" (David Ausubel)?
A: Providing a high-level framework before the details — a conceptual scaffolding that helps listeners organize incoming information. Example: "I'll cover three things: the problem, three options, and my recommendation." Reduces cognitive load and improves retention by giving the audience mental "folders" to sort information into.

Q: What is the concept of "relational coordination" (Jody Hoffer Gittell)?
A: High-quality communication between roles — characterized by shared goals, shared knowledge, and mutual respect — combined with frequent, timely, accurate, and problem-solving communication. Predicts performance in healthcare, aviation, and any system where interdependent roles must coordinate under pressure.

Q: What is the "ladder of inference" intervention?
A: When you notice yourself or others climbing the Ladder of Inference, walk it back down publicly:
"Here's the data I observed…" (rung 1)
"Here's the meaning I assigned…" (rung 2)
"Here's the conclusion I drew…" (rung 3)
"Am I missing something?" (invitation)
Makes your reasoning transparent and testable.

Q: What is the concept of "sensemaking" (Karl Weick)?
A: The process by which people give meaning to collective experience — not finding the "right" answer but creating a plausible narrative. In organizations: after crises or changes, people need facilitated sensemaking conversations: "What just happened? What does this mean for us? What story are we telling ourselves?"

Q: What is the "what I heard" technique?
A: After someone finishes speaking, respond with: "What I heard was…" followed by your interpretation. Crucially different from paraphrasing in that it explicitly acknowledges interpretation — signaling that your understanding may be incomplete. Invites correction: "That's close, but actually…" More honest than pretending you understood perfectly.

Q: What is the concept of "influence without authority"?
A: The ability to get things done through people you don't manage — peers, cross-functional partners, stakeholders. Relies on: building trust capital, understanding others' priorities, framing requests as mutual wins, leveraging reciprocity, and maintaining a track record of reliability. Essential in matrix organizations.

Q: What is the "two-minute rule" in meetings?
A: Each person gets a maximum of two minutes of uninterrupted time to make their point before others can respond. Forces conciseness, prevents monologues, equalizes airtime, and keeps meetings moving. Variations: use a visible timer, or assign a "two-minute timekeeper" role. Surprisingly effective at improving meeting quality.

Q: What is the "mood meter" (Marc Brackett, RULER)?
A: A tool mapping emotions on two axes:
X-axis: pleasantness (unpleasant → pleasant)
Y-axis: energy (low → high)
Four quadrants: Red (high energy, unpleasant — angry/anxious), Yellow (high energy, pleasant — excited/happy), Green (low energy, pleasant — calm/content), Blue (low energy, unpleasant — sad/tired)
Helps teams name and discuss emotions with precision.

Q: What is the concept of "conversational narcissism" repair?
A: When you catch yourself shift-responding (steering conversation back to yourself), repair by explicitly returning focus: "Sorry — I made that about me. I want to hear more about your experience." This self-correction actually strengthens rapport because it demonstrates self-awareness and genuine care for the other person.

Q: What is the "speed of trust" principle (Stephen M.R. Covey)?
A: High trust = high speed, low cost. Low trust = low speed, high cost. In communication: trusted relationships require fewer emails, shorter meetings, less documentation, and fewer approvals. Building trust is the single highest-leverage investment for communication efficiency. The "trust tax" on low-trust teams is enormous.

Q: What is the distinction between "presenting" and "facilitating"?
A: Presenting: one-to-many delivery of content — the presenter is the expert, audience receives.
Facilitating: guiding a group's own thinking — the facilitator is neutral, the group holds the expertise.
Common mistake: facilitating when you should present (wastes time) or presenting when you should facilitate (ignores group wisdom).

Q: What is the "assumption of positive intent"?
A: A leadership practice of defaulting to believing people mean well until clearly proven otherwise. Indra Nooyi (PepsiCo CEO) credited it as her most important leadership principle. Transforms communication: "Why did you do that?" (accusatory) → "Help me understand your thinking" (curious). Doesn't mean being naive — means starting generous.

Q: What is the concept of "energy management" in communication?
A: Recognizing that every interaction has an energetic impact — some conversations drain, others energize. Monitor your energy budget: schedule difficult conversations when energy is high, buffer after draining interactions, and be aware of the energy you bring to others. Rob Cross's research: "energizers" are 4x more likely to be high performers.

Q: What is the "Even Over" statement for prioritization communication?
A: A format for articulating trade-offs: "[Value A] even over [Value B]" — where both are good things, but A is prioritized. Example: "Speed even over perfection" or "Transparency even over comfort." Removes ambiguity about priorities by making the trade-off explicit. Far more useful than listing values without ranking them.

Q: What is the concept of "double-loop learning" (Chris Argyris)?
A: Single-loop: fixing the problem within existing rules ("The report was late → set a reminder").
Double-loop: questioning the underlying assumptions ("Why do we need this report at all? What's it really for?").
In communication: double-loop conversations challenge assumptions and lead to fundamental improvement, not just surface fixes.

Q: What is the technique of "bookending" in presentations?
A: Opening and closing with the same story, image, or phrase — but with new meaning gained from the content in between. Creates a satisfying sense of closure and demonstrates transformation. Example: open with a problem story, present your solution, close by revisiting the story with the problem now resolved.

Q: What is the "plus one" feedback principle?
A: Give feedback that challenges the person one step beyond their current level — not zero steps (boring) and not five steps (overwhelming). Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development applied to feedback: the sweet spot where growth happens. Requires knowing where someone currently is, which requires listening first.

Q: What is the concept of a "communication cadence"?
A: A predictable rhythm of recurring communication touchpoints: daily standups, weekly 1:1s, monthly town halls, quarterly planning, annual reviews. The cadence creates reliability — people know when they'll be heard and informed. Gaps in cadence create anxiety; too-frequent cadence creates fatigue. Calibrate to team needs.

Q: What is the "miracle question" from solution-focused therapy?
A: "If you woke up tomorrow and the problem was miraculously solved, what would be different? What would you notice first?" Bypasses problem analysis and goes directly to envisioning the desired state. Reveals hidden goals, creates hope, and identifies concrete behavioral markers of success. Powerful in coaching and team facilitation.

Q: What is the concept of "negative space" in communication?
A: Like in art, what you leave out is as important as what you include. Strategic omission: not every detail needs sharing, not every objection needs addressing, not every silence needs filling. Negative space creates emphasis — surrounded by less, your key points stand out more. Restraint is a communication skill.

Q: What is the "trust battery" concept (Tobi Lütke, Shopify)?
A: Every relationship has a metaphorical trust battery charged or depleted by each interaction. New relationships start at ~50%. Kept promises, reliability, and honesty charge it; broken commitments, dishonesty, and negligence drain it. In communication: check your trust battery with each key relationship and invest in recharging low ones.

Q: What is the technique of "externalizing the problem"?
A: From narrative therapy: treating the problem as separate from the person. Instead of "You're a bad communicator," → "How does this communication pattern affect you?" The person and the problem are no longer the same thing. Reduces shame, increases agency, and opens space for change. "The problem is the problem; the person is not the problem."