Title: Constitutional Law — LearnCoachAssist

Q: What is the United States Constitution?
A: The U.S. Constitution is the supreme law of the United States, ratified in 1788. It establishes the framework of government, defines the separation of powers among three branches, and protects individual rights through amendments. It is the oldest written national constitution still in use.

Q: What is the Preamble to the Constitution?
A: The Preamble states: "We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution." It declares the purposes and guiding principles of the document.

Q: What does Article I of the Constitution establish?
A: Article I establishes the Legislative Branch (Congress), consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives. It grants Congress the power to make laws, levy taxes, regulate commerce, declare war, and other enumerated powers. Section 8 lists specific congressional powers; Section 9 lists limitations.

Q: What does Article II of the Constitution establish?
A: Article II establishes the Executive Branch, headed by the President. It defines the President's powers, including serving as Commander-in-Chief, making treaties (with Senate approval), appointing federal judges and officials, and executing the laws of the nation.

Q: What does Article III of the Constitution establish?
A: Article III establishes the Judicial Branch, including the Supreme Court and lower federal courts created by Congress. It defines the jurisdiction of federal courts, extends judicial power to cases arising under the Constitution and federal law, and guarantees the right to a jury trial in criminal cases.

Q: What does Article IV of the Constitution address?
A: Article IV addresses relations between the states. It includes the Full Faith and Credit Clause (states must honor other states' laws and court decisions), the Privileges and Immunities Clause, the process for admitting new states, and the guarantee of a republican form of government to each state.

Q: What does Article V of the Constitution describe?
A: Article V describes the amendment process. Amendments can be proposed by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress or by a national convention called by two-thirds of state legislatures. Ratification requires approval by three-fourths of state legislatures or state conventions.

Q: What does Article VI of the Constitution contain?
A: Article VI contains the Supremacy Clause, which establishes the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties as "the supreme Law of the Land." It also requires all federal and state officials to take an oath to support the Constitution and prohibits religious tests for public office.

Q: What does Article VII of the Constitution address?
A: Article VII addresses the ratification of the Constitution, requiring approval by conventions in nine of the thirteen original states. The Constitution was ratified on June 21, 1788, when New Hampshire became the ninth state to approve it.

Q: What is the Bill of Rights?
A: The Bill of Rights consists of the first ten amendments to the Constitution, ratified in 1791. Authored primarily by James Madison, they were added to protect individual liberties and limit government power. They guarantee freedoms such as speech, religion, and due process.

Q: What does the 1st Amendment protect?
A: The 1st Amendment protects five fundamental freedoms: religion (Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses), speech, press, peaceable assembly, and the right to petition the government for redress of grievances. It is the cornerstone of American civil liberties.

Q: What does the 2nd Amendment protect?
A: The 2nd Amendment protects the right to keep and bear arms. It states: "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed." In District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), the Supreme Court held it protects an individual's right to possess firearms.

Q: What does the 3rd Amendment prohibit?
A: The 3rd Amendment prohibits the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner's consent during peacetime. During wartime, quartering is allowed only as prescribed by law. It is one of the least litigated amendments, reflecting colonial grievances against British practices.

Q: What does the 4th Amendment protect?
A: The 4th Amendment protects against unreasonable searches and seizures. It requires that warrants be issued only upon probable cause, supported by oath, and particularly describing the place to be searched and persons or things to be seized. It is the basis of privacy rights in criminal procedure.

Q: What does the 5th Amendment guarantee?
A: The 5th Amendment provides several protections: grand jury indictment for serious crimes, protection against double jeopardy, the right against self-incrimination ("pleading the Fifth"), due process of law, and just compensation for government takings of private property (eminent domain).

Q: What does the 6th Amendment guarantee?
A: The 6th Amendment guarantees rights in criminal prosecutions: a speedy and public trial, an impartial jury, the right to be informed of charges, the right to confront witnesses, the right to compulsory process for obtaining witnesses, and the right to the assistance of counsel.

Q: What does the 7th Amendment guarantee?
A: The 7th Amendment preserves the right to a jury trial in civil cases where the value in controversy exceeds twenty dollars. It also provides that facts found by a jury shall not be re-examined by any court except according to common law rules. It applies primarily to federal courts.

Q: What does the 8th Amendment prohibit?
A: The 8th Amendment prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment. The Supreme Court has used it to limit the death penalty (e.g., barring execution of intellectually disabled persons and juveniles) and to evaluate conditions of incarceration.

Q: What does the 9th Amendment state?
A: The 9th Amendment states that the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution shall not be construed to deny other rights retained by the people. It has been cited to support the existence of unenumerated rights, such as the right to privacy, though its scope remains debated.

Q: What does the 10th Amendment establish?
A: The 10th Amendment reserves to the states or the people all powers not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the states. It is a key principle of federalism and has been invoked in debates over states' rights and the limits of federal authority.

Q: What is the 13th Amendment?
A: The 13th Amendment (1865) abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States, except as punishment for a crime. It was the first of the three Reconstruction Amendments and gave Congress the power to enforce abolition through appropriate legislation.

Q: What is the 14th Amendment?
A: The 14th Amendment (1868) grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guarantees equal protection and due process under the law. Its clauses have been used to incorporate the Bill of Rights against state governments and to combat racial discrimination.

Q: What is the Equal Protection Clause?
A: The Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment requires states to provide equal protection of the laws to all persons within their jurisdiction. It is the basis for challenging discriminatory laws and practices, using different levels of judicial scrutiny: rational basis, intermediate, and strict scrutiny.

Q: What is the 15th Amendment?
A: The 15th Amendment (1870) prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Despite its ratification, discriminatory practices like poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses persisted until the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Q: What is the 19th Amendment?
A: The 19th Amendment (1920) guarantees women's right to vote, stating that the right to vote shall not be denied on account of sex. It was the culmination of the women's suffrage movement that began at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.

Q: What is the 18th Amendment?
A: The 18th Amendment (1919) established Prohibition, banning the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors in the United States. It led to widespread bootlegging and organized crime. It is the only amendment to have been repealed (by the 21st Amendment in 1933).

Q: What is the 21st Amendment?
A: The 21st Amendment (1933) repealed the 18th Amendment, ending Prohibition. It is the only amendment ratified by state conventions rather than state legislatures. Section 2 gives states the power to regulate alcohol within their borders.

Q: What is the 22nd Amendment?
A: The 22nd Amendment (1951) limits the President to two terms in office (or a maximum of 10 years if they assumed office mid-term). It was ratified in response to Franklin D. Roosevelt's unprecedented four-term presidency.

Q: What is the 24th Amendment?
A: The 24th Amendment (1964) prohibits the use of poll taxes in federal elections. Poll taxes had been used primarily in Southern states to disenfranchise African American and poor white voters. The Supreme Court later extended this ban to state elections in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966).

Q: What is the 25th Amendment?
A: The 25th Amendment (1967) addresses presidential succession and disability. It provides for the Vice President to assume the presidency if the President dies or resigns (Section 1), filling vice-presidential vacancies (Section 2), and procedures when the President is unable to discharge duties (Sections 3 and 4).

Q: What is the 26th Amendment?
A: The 26th Amendment (1971) lowered the voting age to 18 years. It was adopted during the Vietnam War era in response to the argument that citizens old enough to be drafted should be old enough to vote. It states the right to vote shall not be denied on account of age for those 18 or older.

Q: What is separation of powers?
A: Separation of powers is the constitutional principle that divides government authority among three branches: legislative (Congress makes laws), executive (President enforces laws), and judicial (courts interpret laws). This structure prevents any single branch from accumulating too much power.

Q: What are checks and balances?
A: Checks and balances is the system by which each branch of government limits the powers of the other branches. Examples include: the President can veto legislation, Congress can override vetoes and impeach officials, and the judiciary can declare laws unconstitutional through judicial review.

Q: What is federalism?
A: Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central (federal) government and regional (state) governments. The Constitution grants certain powers to the federal government (enumerated powers), reserves others to the states (10th Amendment), and shares some powers (concurrent powers).

Q: What is judicial review?
A: Judicial review is the power of courts to examine laws and government actions and declare them unconstitutional. Established in Marbury v. Madison (1803), it is not explicitly stated in the Constitution but has become a fundamental principle of American constitutional law.

Q: What was the ruling in Marbury v. Madison (1803)?
A: In Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall established the principle of judicial review, holding that the Supreme Court has the power to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional. The Court ruled that Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional because it expanded the Court's original jurisdiction beyond what the Constitution permitted.

Q: What was the ruling in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)?
A: In McCulloch v. Maryland, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress has implied powers under the Necessary and Proper Clause (Article I, Section 8) to create a national bank, and that states cannot tax federal institutions. Chief Justice Marshall famously stated, "the power to tax involves the power to destroy."

Q: What was the ruling in Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)?
A: In Gibbons v. Ogden, the Supreme Court broadly interpreted the Commerce Clause, ruling that Congress has the power to regulate interstate commerce, including navigation. The decision established federal supremacy over state law in matters of interstate trade and expanded the scope of congressional power.

Q: What was the ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)?
A: In Dred Scott v. Sandford, the Supreme Court ruled that enslaved people were not citizens and had no standing to sue in federal court. It also declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional. Widely regarded as one of the worst decisions in Supreme Court history, it intensified the national debate over slavery.

Q: What was the ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)?
A: In Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court upheld racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine, ruling that segregated public facilities did not violate the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. This decision legitimized Jim Crow laws for nearly 60 years until overturned by Brown v. Board of Education.

Q: What was the ruling in Brown v. Board of Education (1954)?
A: In Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson. Chief Justice Warren wrote that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," violating the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause.

Q: What was the ruling in Mapp v. Ohio (1961)?
A: In Mapp v. Ohio, the Supreme Court ruled that the exclusionary rule applies to state courts through the 14th Amendment. Evidence obtained through unreasonable searches and seizures in violation of the 4th Amendment cannot be used in state criminal prosecutions.

Q: What was the ruling in Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)?
A: In Gideon v. Wainwright, the Supreme Court ruled that the 6th Amendment right to counsel applies to state courts through the 14th Amendment. States must provide attorneys to criminal defendants who cannot afford one, even in non-capital cases.

Q: What was the ruling in Miranda v. Arizona (1966)?
A: In Miranda v. Arizona, the Supreme Court ruled that suspects must be informed of their constitutional rights (right to remain silent, right to an attorney) before custodial interrogation. Statements obtained without these warnings are inadmissible in court. This established the famous "Miranda rights."

Q: What was the ruling in Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)?
A: In Tinker v. Des Moines, the Supreme Court ruled that students do not "shed their constitutional rights at the schoolhouse gate." The Court held that wearing black armbands to protest the Vietnam War was protected symbolic speech under the 1st Amendment, unless it substantially disrupts school operations.

Q: What was the ruling in Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)?
A: In Lemon v. Kurtzman, the Supreme Court established the Lemon test for evaluating Establishment Clause cases. A government action must: (1) have a secular legislative purpose, (2) neither advance nor inhibit religion, and (3) not result in excessive government entanglement with religion.

Q: What was the ruling in New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)?
A: In New York Times v. Sullivan, the Supreme Court held that the 1st Amendment requires public officials suing for defamation to prove actual malice—that the statement was made with knowledge of its falsity or reckless disregard for the truth. This raised the bar for defamation claims by public figures.

Q: What was the ruling in Roe v. Wade (1973)?
A: In Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court ruled that the right to privacy under the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause extended to a woman's decision to have an abortion. The Court established a trimester framework balancing the woman's rights against state interests. This decision was overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022).

Q: What was the ruling in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022)?
A: In Dobbs v. Jackson, the Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade, holding that the Constitution does not confer a right to abortion. The Court ruled that authority to regulate abortion is returned to the people and their elected representatives in each state.

Q: What was the ruling in United States v. Nixon (1974)?
A: In United States v. Nixon, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that executive privilege is not absolute and cannot be used to withhold evidence in a criminal prosecution. President Nixon was ordered to release the Watergate tapes, leading to his resignation shortly afterward.

Q: What was the ruling in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)?
A: In Regents v. Bakke, the Supreme Court ruled that racial quotas in university admissions are unconstitutional, but that race may be considered as one factor among many in the admissions process. Justice Powell's opinion established diversity as a compelling interest in higher education.

Q: What was the ruling in Texas v. Johnson (1989)?
A: In Texas v. Johnson, the Supreme Court ruled that flag burning is protected symbolic speech under the 1st Amendment. The Court held that the government may not prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society finds it disagreeable or offensive.

Q: What was the ruling in Citizens United v. FEC (2010)?
A: In Citizens United v. FEC, the Supreme Court ruled that the 1st Amendment prohibits the government from restricting independent political expenditures by corporations and unions. The decision held that political spending is a form of protected speech, significantly affecting campaign finance law.

Q: What was the ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)?
A: In Obergefell v. Hodges, the Supreme Court ruled that the right to marry is guaranteed to same-sex couples under the 14th Amendment's Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses. The 5-4 decision required all states to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples and recognize those marriages performed in other states.

Q: What is strict scrutiny?
A: Strict scrutiny is the highest standard of judicial review applied when a law involves a suspect classification (race, national origin, religion) or burdens a fundamental right. The government must show the law is narrowly tailored to serve a compelling government interest.

Q: What is intermediate scrutiny?
A: Intermediate scrutiny is a mid-level standard of judicial review applied primarily to gender-based classifications. The government must show the law is substantially related to an important government interest. It is more demanding than rational basis review but less than strict scrutiny.

Q: What is rational basis review?
A: Rational basis review is the lowest standard of judicial review. It applies to most laws that do not involve suspect classifications or fundamental rights. The government need only show the law is rationally related to a legitimate government interest. Laws rarely fail this test.

Q: What is the Commerce Clause?
A: The Commerce Clause (Article I, Section 8, Clause 3) grants Congress the power to regulate commerce among the states, with foreign nations, and with Indian tribes. Since Gibbons v. Ogden, it has been broadly interpreted and is one of the most significant sources of federal regulatory power.

Q: What is the Necessary and Proper Clause?
A: The Necessary and Proper Clause (Article I, Section 8, Clause 18) grants Congress the power to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers. Also called the "Elastic Clause," it was used in McCulloch v. Maryland to justify the creation of a national bank.

Q: What is the Supremacy Clause?
A: The Supremacy Clause (Article VI, Clause 2) establishes that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land. State laws that conflict with federal law are preempted and invalid. It is the foundation of federal supremacy and the doctrine of preemption.

Q: What is the Establishment Clause?
A: The Establishment Clause (1st Amendment) prohibits the government from establishing an official religion or unduly favoring one religion over another. It requires government neutrality toward religion and has been applied to issues such as school prayer, religious displays on public property, and government funding of religious organizations.

Q: What is the Free Exercise Clause?
A: The Free Exercise Clause (1st Amendment) protects individuals' right to practice their religion freely without government interference. However, this right is not absolute; the government may impose neutral, generally applicable laws that incidentally burden religious practice, as held in Employment Division v. Smith (1990).

Q: What is the Takings Clause?
A: The Takings Clause (5th Amendment) prohibits the government from taking private property for public use without just compensation. It applies to both physical takings (eminent domain) and regulatory takings (government regulations that effectively deprive an owner of all economically viable use of their property).

Q: What is the Full Faith and Credit Clause?
A: The Full Faith and Credit Clause (Article IV, Section 1) requires each state to recognize and honor the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. This means court judgments, contracts, and marriages valid in one state must generally be recognized in all others.

Q: What is originalism as a method of constitutional interpretation?
A: Originalism is a theory of constitutional interpretation that holds the Constitution should be interpreted based on its original meaning at the time it was adopted. Proponents argue this approach constrains judicial discretion and preserves democratic self-governance. Justices Scalia and Thomas are well-known originalists.

Q: What is the living Constitution approach?
A: The living Constitution approach holds that the Constitution's meaning evolves over time to address changing societal conditions and values. Proponents argue that the framers intended a flexible document. Critics argue this approach gives judges too much discretion to impose their own values.

Q: What is textualism?
A: Textualism is a method of constitutional and statutory interpretation focused on the plain meaning of the text as written. Textualists avoid relying on legislative intent, purpose, or other external sources, arguing that the law is what the text says, not what lawmakers intended.

Q: What is incorporation in constitutional law?
A: Incorporation is the process by which the Bill of Rights has been applied to state governments through the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause. Through selective incorporation, the Supreme Court has applied most (but not all) Bill of Rights protections against the states on a case-by-case basis.

Q: What is the Elastic Clause?
A: The Elastic Clause is another name for the Necessary and Proper Clause (Article I, Section 8, Clause 18). It allows Congress to stretch its powers beyond those explicitly enumerated in the Constitution to carry out its duties. It has been central to expanding federal legislative authority.

Q: What are enumerated powers?
A: Enumerated powers are the specific powers expressly granted to Congress in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution. They include the power to tax, borrow money, regulate commerce, coin money, establish post offices, declare war, raise armies, and make laws necessary and proper to execute these powers.

Q: What are reserved powers?
A: Reserved powers are those not delegated to the federal government and not prohibited to the states, which are retained by the states or the people under the 10th Amendment. Examples include regulating intrastate commerce, conducting elections, establishing local governments, and exercising general police powers.

Q: What are concurrent powers?
A: Concurrent powers are those shared by both the federal and state governments. Examples include the power to tax, build roads, establish courts, borrow money, and enforce laws. When federal and state laws conflict in areas of concurrent power, the Supremacy Clause gives precedence to federal law.

Q: What is the Privileges and Immunities Clause?
A: There are two Privileges and Immunities Clauses: Article IV, Section 2 prevents states from discriminating against citizens of other states regarding fundamental rights. The 14th Amendment clause was intended to protect fundamental rights of national citizenship, though its scope was narrowed by the Slaughter-House Cases (1873).

Q: What was the ruling in Engel v. Vitale (1962)?
A: In Engel v. Vitale, the Supreme Court ruled that school-sponsored prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause of the 1st Amendment, even if participation is voluntary and the prayer is non-denominational. The government cannot compose or endorse prayers for use in public schools.

Q: What was the ruling in Schenck v. United States (1919)?
A: In Schenck v. United States, the Supreme Court upheld restrictions on speech that presented a "clear and present danger". Justice Holmes wrote that speech creating a clear and present danger of substantive evils that Congress may prevent can be restricted, comparing it to falsely shouting "fire" in a crowded theater.

Q: What was the ruling in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)?
A: In Brandenburg v. Ohio, the Supreme Court held that the government cannot punish inflammatory speech unless it is "directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action" and is likely to produce such action. This replaced the "clear and present danger" test with a stricter standard protecting more speech.

Q: What is executive privilege?
A: Executive privilege is the President's claimed right to withhold information from Congress, the courts, and the public in the interest of national security or confidential communications. While recognized in United States v. Nixon, the Court held it is not absolute and must yield to the needs of criminal justice.

Q: What is the impeachment process?
A: Impeachment is the constitutional process for removing federal officials, including the President. The House of Representatives has the sole power to impeach (bring charges) by majority vote. The Senate conducts the trial with a two-thirds vote required for conviction and removal. Grounds include "high Crimes and Misdemeanors."

Q: What is the Electoral College?
A: The Electoral College is the body of electors established by the Constitution (Article II) to elect the President and Vice President. Each state receives electors equal to its total congressional representation. A candidate needs 270 of 538 electoral votes to win. The 12th Amendment revised the process after the 1800 election.

Q: What was the significance of Marbury v. Madison?
A: Marbury v. Madison (1803) is considered the most important case in American constitutional law because it established the principle of judicial review. Chief Justice Marshall's opinion asserted the Supreme Court's authority to determine the constitutionality of legislative and executive actions, making the judiciary a co-equal branch.

Q: What is the War Powers Resolution (1973)?
A: The War Powers Resolution limits the President's ability to commit U.S. forces to military action without congressional approval. It requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and mandates withdrawal within 60 days (plus 30-day withdrawal period) unless Congress authorizes continued use.

Q: What is substantive due process?
A: Substantive due process is a principle under the 5th and 14th Amendments that protects certain fundamental rights from government interference, regardless of the procedures followed. It has been used to protect rights not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, including privacy, marriage, and family autonomy.

Q: What is procedural due process?
A: Procedural due process requires the government to follow fair procedures before depriving a person of life, liberty, or property. At minimum, it requires notice of the action and an opportunity to be heard. The specific procedures required depend on the interests at stake.

Q: What was the ruling in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)?
A: In Griswold v. Connecticut, the Supreme Court struck down a state law banning contraceptives for married couples, establishing a constitutional right to privacy. Justice Douglas found this right in the "penumbras" and "emanations" of several Bill of Rights amendments. It laid the groundwork for later privacy-based decisions.

Q: What was the ruling in Loving v. Virginia (1967)?
A: In Loving v. Virginia, the Supreme Court unanimously struck down laws banning interracial marriage as violations of the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses. Chief Justice Warren wrote that marriage is a fundamental right and restricting it based on race is unconstitutional.

Q: What was the ruling in Korematsu v. United States (1944)?
A: In Korematsu v. United States, the Supreme Court upheld the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. The Court applied strict scrutiny but found military necessity compelling. Widely criticized, it was effectively overruled by the Court's 2018 decision in Trump v. Hawaii, which called it "gravely wrong."

Q: What was the ruling in Bush v. Gore (2000)?
A: In Bush v. Gore, the Supreme Court halted the Florida presidential election recount, ruling that different counting standards across counties violated the Equal Protection Clause. The 5-4 decision effectively determined the outcome of the 2000 presidential election in favor of George W. Bush.

Q: What is the state action doctrine?
A: The state action doctrine holds that the Constitution only restricts government actions, not those of private individuals or entities. The 14th Amendment's equal protection and due process guarantees apply only when there is state action, though courts have found state action in cases of significant government involvement with private parties.

Q: What is the political question doctrine?
A: The political question doctrine holds that certain constitutional issues are non-justiciable and should be resolved by the political branches (Congress and the President) rather than the courts. In Baker v. Carr (1962), the Court identified factors for determining whether an issue is a political question.

Q: What was the ruling in Baker v. Carr (1962)?
A: In Baker v. Carr, the Supreme Court ruled that legislative redistricting cases are justiciable and not political questions. The case established the principle of "one person, one vote" by holding that the Equal Protection Clause requires roughly equal legislative districts. It opened federal courts to reapportionment challenges.

Q: What was the ruling in Shelby County v. Holder (2013)?
A: In Shelby County v. Holder, the Supreme Court struck down Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which contained the coverage formula determining which jurisdictions required federal preclearance before changing voting laws. The Court ruled the formula was based on outdated data and thus unconstitutional.

Q: What is preemption in constitutional law?
A: Preemption occurs when federal law overrides or displaces state law under the Supremacy Clause. It can be express (Congress explicitly states it), implied (federal regulation is so comprehensive it "occupies the field"), or conflict-based (state law directly contradicts or frustrates federal objectives).

Q: What is the Free Speech Clause and what types of speech are unprotected?
A: The Free Speech Clause of the 1st Amendment protects most forms of expression. However, certain categories of speech receive no constitutional protection: obscenity, fighting words, true threats, incitement to imminent lawless action, child pornography, and fraud. Commercial speech receives intermediate protection.

Q: What was the ruling in McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010)?
A: In McDonald v. City of Chicago, the Supreme Court ruled that the 2nd Amendment right to bear arms applies to state and local governments through the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause (incorporation). This extended the individual right recognized in District of Columbia v. Heller beyond the federal government.

Q: What is the Ex Post Facto Clause?
A: The Ex Post Facto Clauses (Article I, Sections 9 and 10) prohibit Congress and states from passing retroactive criminal laws that punish actions that were legal when committed, increase punishment after the fact, or alter the rules of evidence to make conviction easier. The prohibition applies only to criminal laws, not civil.

Q: What is a writ of mandamus?
A: A writ of mandamus is a court order compelling a government official to perform a duty they are legally obligated to carry out. It was central to Marbury v. Madison, where Marbury sought a mandamus to compel Secretary of State Madison to deliver his judicial commission.

Q: What was the ruling in Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964)?
A: In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States, the Supreme Court upheld the Civil Rights Act of 1964 under the Commerce Clause. The Court ruled that Congress could prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations (hotels, restaurants) because such discrimination substantially affects interstate commerce.

Q: What is the 16th Amendment?
A: The 16th Amendment (1913) gives Congress the power to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states based on population. It overturned the Supreme Court's decision in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895) and enabled the modern federal income tax system.

Q: What is the 17th Amendment?
A: The 17th Amendment (1913) provides for the direct election of U.S. Senators by the people of each state. Before this amendment, Senators were chosen by state legislatures as specified in Article I. It was part of the Progressive Era reforms to make government more democratic.

Q: What is the Dormant Commerce Clause?
A: The Dormant Commerce Clause is a judicial doctrine inferred from the Commerce Clause that restricts states from passing laws that discriminate against or unduly burden interstate commerce, even when Congress has not legislated on the matter. States may not impose protectionist regulations favoring in-state businesses.