Ethics And Moral Philosophy

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory stating that the best action is the one that maximizes overall utility, typically defined as happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people.

Jeremy Bentham is considered the founder of classical utilitarianism, introducing the principle of utility in his work An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789).

Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action by its consequences, while rule utilitarianism evaluates actions based on whether they follow rules that generally maximize utility.

The felicific calculus (or hedonic calculus) is Bentham's method for measuring pleasure and pain using criteria such as intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent.

Mill introduced a qualitative distinction between pleasures, arguing that intellectual and moral pleasures (higher pleasures) are superior to mere physical pleasures (lower pleasures).

Preference utilitarianism defines the good as the satisfaction of people's preferences or interests, rather than maximizing pleasure. It is associated with philosophers like R.M. Hare and Peter Singer.

Utilitarianism can justify sacrificing the rights of a minority if doing so maximizes overall happiness, which conflicts with intuitions about individual rights and justice.

Proposed by Robert Nozick, the utility monster is a thought experiment where one being derives enormously more pleasure from resources than others, so utilitarianism demands giving it everything — exposing a flaw in the theory.

Deontology is an ethical theory that judges the morality of actions based on their adherence to rules, duties, or obligations, rather than their consequences.

Immanuel Kant is the most prominent deontological philosopher, known for his work Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785).

The categorical imperative is Kant's supreme moral principle: act only according to a maxim that you could will to become a universal law without contradiction.

The Formula of Universal Law: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."