Title: Human Anatomy — LearnCoachAssist

Q: What is the anatomical position?
A: The anatomical position is a standard reference posture where the body stands upright facing the observer, feet together and parallel, arms at the sides with palms forward, and head and eyes directed forward.
This position ensures consistent anatomical descriptions.

Q: What are the three main anatomical planes?
A: The three main planes are the sagittal plane (divides body into left and right), coronal plane (divides into anterior and posterior), and transverse plane (divides into superior and inferior).
These planes allow for standardized views of body structures.

Q: Name the major body cavities.
A: The major body cavities are the dorsal cavity (cranial and spinal) and ventral cavity (thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic).
The ventral cavity is separated by the diaphragm into thoracic and abdominopelvic regions.

Q: What are the four primary tissue types in the human body?
A: The four primary tissue types are epithelial (covering and lining), connective (support and binding), muscle (contraction), and nervous (communication and control).
These tissues combine to form organs.

Q: What is the function of the skeletal system?
A: The skeletal system provides support, protection for organs, enables movement via muscle attachments, stores minerals like calcium, and produces blood cells in bone marrow.
It consists of 206 bones in adults.

Q: Distinguish between axial and appendicular skeleton.
A: The axial skeleton forms the central core (skull, vertebral column, rib cage; 80 bones), while the appendicular skeleton includes limbs and girdles (126 bones).
Together they total 206 bones.

Q: What are the five types of bones classified by shape?
A: The five types are long bones (e.g., femur), short bones (e.g., carpals), flat bones (e.g., skull), irregular bones (e.g., vertebrae), and sesamoid bones (e.g., patella).
Classification relates to function and structure.

Q: Describe the structure of a long bone.
A: A long bone has a diaphysis (shaft), epiphyses (ends), metaphysis (growth zone), periosteum (outer membrane), endosteum (inner lining), and medullary cavity (marrow space).
Compact bone surrounds spongy bone trabeculae.

Q: What are the three main types of joints?
A: The three types are fibrous (immovable, e.g., sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g., intervertebral discs), and synovial (freely movable, e.g., knee).
Synovial joints have capsules, fluid, and subtypes like hinge or ball-and-socket.

Q: Name the components of a synovial joint.
A: Synovial joints include articular cartilage, synovial membrane (secretes fluid), joint capsule, ligaments, and bursae for cushioning.
This structure reduces friction and allows smooth movement.

Q: What are the three types of muscle tissue?
A: Skeletal muscle is voluntary and striated, smooth muscle is involuntary and non-striated (in organs), and cardiac muscle is involuntary, striated, and found only in the heart.
Each type has unique functions in contraction.

Q: Describe the gross structure of skeletal muscle.
A: Skeletal muscle consists of muscle fascicles (bundles of fibers), each fiber containing myofibrils with sarcomeres (actin and myosin).
Connective tissue sheaths (endo-, peri-, epimysium) protect and transmit force.

Q: What is the neuromuscular junction?
A: The neuromuscular junction is the synapse between a motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber, where acetylcholine release triggers contraction.
It enables voluntary muscle control.

Q: Outline the divisions of the nervous system.
A: The nervous system divides into central nervous system (CNS: brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (PNS: nerves outside CNS, including sensory, motor, and autonomic divisions).
The autonomic further splits into sympathetic and parasympathetic.

Q: What protects the brain?
A: The brain is protected by the skull, meninges (dura, arachnoid, pia mater), cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in ventricles and subarachnoid space, and the blood-brain barrier.
These layers cushion and nourish.

Q: Describe the major lobes of the cerebrum.
A: The cerebrum has frontal (motor, executive function), parietal (sensory integration), temporal (auditory, memory), and occipital (visual) lobes.
A central longitudinal fissure separates left and right hemispheres.

Q: What is the structure of the spinal cord?
A: The spinal cord is a cylindrical structure extending from the medulla oblongata to L1-L2 vertebra, with gray matter (H-shaped, neurons) centrally and white matter (myelinated tracts) peripherally.
It has 31 segments with spinal nerves.

Q: Name the 12 cranial nerves and their primary functions.
A: I Olfactory (smell), II Optic (vision), III Oculomotor (eye movement), IV Trochlear (eye), V Trigeminal (face sensation), VI Abducens (eye), VII Facial (facial expression), VIII Vestibulocochlear (hearing/balance), IX Glossopharyngeal (swallow/taste), X Vagus (parasympathetic/viscera), XI Accessory (shoulder), XII Hypoglossal (tongue).
Mnemonics like 'Oh Oh Oh To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet AH' aid recall.

Q: What are the layers of the heart wall?
A: The heart wall has three layers: epicardium (outer serous), myocardium (thick muscular middle), and endocardium (inner lining continuous with valves).
Pericardium is the outer sac.

Q: Describe the heart's chambers and valves.
A: Four chambers: right/left atria (receive blood), right/left ventricles (pump blood).
Valves: tricuspid (right AV), mitral (left AV), pulmonary (right semilunar), aortic (left semilunar).

Q: What is the conducting system of the heart?
A: The conducting system includes sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker), atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.
It coordinates electrical impulses for heartbeat.

Q: Differentiate arteries, veins, and capillaries.
A: Arteries carry blood away from heart (thick, elastic walls), veins return to heart (thin walls, valves), capillaries are thin-walled exchange sites.
Arterioles and venules connect them.

Q: Outline the respiratory tract divisions.
A: Upper respiratory tract: nose, pharynx, larynx; lower: trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli in lungs.
Conducting zones filter air; respiratory zones exchange gases.

Q: Describe lung structure.
A: Each lung has three lobes (right) or two (left), with bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli (300 million for gas exchange).
Pleura (visceral and parietal) and pleural cavity surround them.

Q: What is the diaphragm's role?
A: The diaphragm is a dome-shaped skeletal muscle separating thoracic and abdominal cavities, primary muscle of inspiration via contraction and flattening.
Phrenic nerve innervates it.

Q: Name the parts of the stomach.
A: Stomach regions: cardia (entrance), fundus, body, pylorus (exit to duodenum).
Rugae (folds) increase surface area for digestion.

Q: Describe the small intestine sections.
A: Small intestine: duodenum (25 cm, receives bile/pancreatic juice), jejunum (2.5 m, absorption), ileum (3.5 m, vitamin B12/ bile salts).
Villi and microvilli enhance absorption.

Q: What are the accessory digestive organs?
A: Accessory organs include salivary glands, liver (bile), gallbladder (bile storage), pancreas (enzymes and hormones).
They aid in digestion without being part of the alimentary canal.

Q: Outline liver anatomy.
A: The liver has right/left lobes (functional: 8 segments), porta hepatis (vessels/ducts entry), hepatocytes in lobules around central veins.
Glisson's capsule covers it.

Q: Describe kidney gross structure.
A: Each kidney has outer cortex (glomeruli), inner medulla (pyramids/calyces), renal pelvis (to ureter).
Renal capsule and adipose protect; hilum is entry point.

Q: What is a nephron?
A: The nephron is the functional unit: renal corpuscle (glomerulus + Bowman's capsule), proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct.
Over 1 million per kidney filter blood.

Q: Name the urinary tract.
A: Urinary tract: kidneys (form urine), ureters (transport), urinary bladder (stores), urethra (exits).
Micturition reflex controls voiding.

Q: Describe male reproductive anatomy.
A: Male: testes (seminiferous tubules produce sperm), epididymis (maturation), vas deferens, seminal vesicles/prostate (fluid), penis (urethra).
Scrotum regulates temperature.

Q: Outline female reproductive tract.
A: Female: ovaries (follicles/oocytes), uterine tubes (fertilization), uterus (endometrium for implantation), vagina (birth canal), external vulva.
Menstrual cycle prepares for pregnancy.

Q: What are the layers of the skin?
A: Skin has epidermis (keratinized stratified squamous), dermis (connective tissue with glands/vessels), hypodermis (adipose subcutaneous).
Integumentary system protects and regulates.

Q: Describe endocrine glands and examples.
A: Endocrine glands are ductless, secrete hormones into blood: pituitary (master), thyroid (metabolism), adrenals (stress), pancreas (insulin), gonads.
Homeostasis via feedback.

Q: What is the lymphatic system's role?
A: Lymphatic system returns interstitial fluid as lymph, absorbs fats, provides immunity via nodes, spleen, thymus.
Vessels parallel veins.

Q: Name the components of the eye.
A: Eye: cornea (refraction), iris (pupil control), lens (focus), retina (photoreceptors: rods/cones), optic nerve.
Vitreous/aqueous humors maintain shape.

Q: Describe ear divisions.
A: Ear: external (pinna, canal), middle (ossicles: malleus, incus, stapes; Eustachian tube), inner (cochlea for hearing, semicircular canals/vestibule for balance).
Cochlear duct has organ of Corti.

Q: What is the structure of a vertebra?
A: Typical vertebra: body (weight-bearing), vertebral arch (pedicles, laminae), spinous/transverse processes, vertebral foramen (spinal cord).
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar vary.

Q: Name the bones of the skull.
A: Skull: cranium (8: frontal, 2 parietal, occipital, 2 temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid), facial (14: maxillae, mandible, zygomatics, etc.).
Foramina allow nerve/vessel passage.

Q: Describe the shoulder girdle.
A: Shoulder girdle: clavicle (collarbone), scapula (shoulder blade).
Articulates humerus at glenoid cavity for arm mobility.

Q: What are the bones of the hand?
A: Hand: 8 carpals (wrist), 5 metacarpals (palm), 14 phalanges (fingers: 3 each except thumb 2).
Allow dexterity.

Q: Outline pelvic girdle.
A: Pelvic girdle: 2 hip bones (ilium, ischium, pubis fused as os coxae), sacrum, coccyx.
Supports weight, protects organs.

Q: Name major leg bones.
A: Leg: femur (thigh), patella (kneecap), tibia (shin, weight-bearing), fibula (lateral support).
Tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges in foot.

Q: What are prime movers, synergists, and antagonists?
A: Prime movers initiate action (e.g., biceps for flexion), synergists assist (brachialis), antagonists oppose (triceps).
Coordinated for smooth movement.

Q: Describe the quadriceps femoris.
A: Quadriceps femoris: rectus femoris, vastus lateralis/intermedius/medialis; extend knee, originate femur, insert tibial tuberosity via patellar ligament.
Largest leg muscle group.

Q: Name the rotator cuff muscles.
A: Rotator cuff: supraspinatus (abduction), infraspinatus (external rotation), teres minor (external), subscapularis (internal).
Stabilize humeral head in glenoid.

Q: What is the autonomic nervous system?
A: Autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary functions: sympathetic (fight-or-flight, thoracolumbar), parasympathetic (rest-digest, craniosacral).
Enteric subsystem for gut.

Q: Describe the hypothalamus.
A: Hypothalamus regulates homeostasis: hunger, thirst, temperature, hormones via pituitary, autonomic control.
Connected to pituitary stalk.

Q: What is the cerebellum's function and location?
A: Cerebellum (little brain) coordinates voluntary movement, balance, posture; located posterior to brainstem in posterior cranial fossa.
Has folia and arbor vitae internally.

Q: Outline the nephron's filtration process.
A: Filtration at glomerulus (blood pressure forces filtrate into Bowman's capsule), reabsorption (proximal tubule 65% water/glucose), secretion (distal), concentration (loop of Henle countercurrent).
Forms urine.

Q: Describe the blood-brain barrier.
A: Blood-brain barrier: tight junctions of capillary endothelial cells, astrocyte foot processes, basement membrane; selective for nutrients, blocks toxins.
Essential for neural protection.