Title: Intro Psychology — LearnCoachAssist

Q: What is psychology?
A: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It encompasses everything from brain function and perception to social interactions and psychological disorders.

Q: Who is considered the "father of modern psychology"?
A: Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of modern psychology. He established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.

Q: What was structuralism?
A: Structuralism was the first school of psychology, founded by Edward Titchener (based on Wundt's work). It aimed to break down conscious experience into its basic elements using introspection.

Q: What is introspection?
A: Introspection is the process of looking inward and examining one's own conscious thoughts and feelings. It was the primary method used by structuralists to study the mind.

Q: What was functionalism?
A: Functionalism, pioneered by William James, focused on how and why mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment. It was influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution.

Q: Who wrote "The Principles of Psychology" (1890)?
A: William James wrote this influential textbook. It covered topics such as habit, emotion, consciousness, and the self, and helped establish psychology as a legitimate discipline.

Q: What is behaviorism?
A: Behaviorism is a school of psychology that focuses exclusively on observable, measurable behavior. It rejects the study of internal mental states and was founded by John B. Watson.

Q: What was Watson's "Little Albert" experiment?
A: Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a baby (Little Albert) to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise. This demonstrated that emotional responses could be classically conditioned.

Q: Who was B.F. Skinner?
A: B.F. Skinner was a leading behaviorist who developed the concept of operant conditioning. He demonstrated how behavior is shaped by its consequences (reinforcement and punishment) using the "Skinner box."

Q: What is psychoanalysis?
A: Psychoanalysis is a theory and therapy developed by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the role of unconscious desires, conflicts, and childhood experiences in shaping behavior and personality.

Q: What are Freud's three structures of personality?
A: Freud proposed three structures: the id (primitive desires, pleasure principle), the ego (mediator, reality principle), and the superego (moral conscience, idealistic principle).

Q: What is the humanistic perspective in psychology?
A: Humanistic psychology, led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasizes free will, personal growth, and self-actualization. It views people as inherently good and striving toward their full potential.

Q: What is the cognitive revolution?
A: The cognitive revolution (1950s–1960s) was a shift in psychology toward studying internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving. It emerged as a reaction against behaviorism's limitations.

Q: What is the biopsychosocial model?
A: The biopsychosocial model explains behavior and mental processes as products of biological (genetics, brain chemistry), psychological (thoughts, emotions), and social (culture, relationships) factors interacting together.

Q: What is the nature vs. nurture debate?
A: This is the longstanding debate over whether behavior is primarily influenced by genetics and biology (nature) or environment and experience (nurture). Modern psychology recognizes both factors interact.

Q: What is the scientific method in psychology?
A: The scientific method involves: 1) forming a hypothesis, 2) designing a study, 3) collecting data, 4) analyzing results, and 5) drawing conclusions. It ensures findings are systematic and replicable.

Q: What is an independent variable (IV)?
A: The independent variable is the factor the researcher manipulates or changes in an experiment. It is the presumed cause of changes in the dependent variable.

Q: What is a dependent variable (DV)?
A: The dependent variable is the factor that is measured in an experiment. It is the outcome that may change as a result of manipulating the independent variable.

Q: What is a confounding variable?
A: A confounding variable is an uncontrolled factor that may influence the dependent variable, making it difficult to determine whether the IV truly caused the observed effect.

Q: What is random assignment?
A: Random assignment means each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any condition of the experiment. It helps control for pre-existing differences between groups.

Q: What is the difference between correlation and causation?
A: Correlation means two variables are related or change together, but it does not prove one causes the other. Only controlled experiments can establish causation.

Q: What is a double-blind study?
A: A double-blind study is one in which neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with them know who is in the experimental or control group. This reduces bias.

Q: What is the placebo effect?
A: The placebo effect occurs when participants show improvement simply because they believe they are receiving treatment, even though the treatment is inert. It demonstrates the power of expectation.

Q: What are the parts of a neuron?
A: A neuron has three main parts: dendrites (receive signals), the cell body/soma (processes information), and the axon (transmits signals to other neurons).

Q: What is the myelin sheath?
A: The myelin sheath is a fatty insulating layer that covers the axon and speeds up neural transmission. Damage to myelin (as in multiple sclerosis) slows signal conduction.

Q: What is a synapse?
A: A synapse is the tiny gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of the next. Neurotransmitters are released across this gap to transmit signals.

Q: What is an action potential?
A: An action potential is a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron. It follows the "all-or-none" principle — it either fires completely or not at all.

Q: What is the function of dopamine?
A: Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, pleasure, and movement. Imbalances are linked to Parkinson's disease (too little) and schizophrenia (too much activity).

Q: What is the function of serotonin?
A: Serotonin regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and body temperature. Low serotonin levels are associated with depression and anxiety disorders.

Q: What does GABA do?
A: GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. It reduces neural activity and plays a key role in reducing anxiety.

Q: What does glutamate do?
A: Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. It is involved in learning and memory, but excess glutamate can cause excitotoxicity and neural damage.

Q: What is the function of acetylcholine (ACh)?
A: Acetylcholine plays a key role in muscle contraction, attention, and memory. Degeneration of ACh-producing neurons is associated with Alzheimer's disease.

Q: What are endorphins?
A: Endorphins are natural painkillers produced by the brain. They reduce the perception of pain and can produce feelings of euphoria (e.g., "runner's high").

Q: What is the central nervous system (CNS)?
A: The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. It processes and integrates information from the entire body and coordinates responses.

Q: What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
A: The PNS includes all nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. It is divided into the somatic nervous system (voluntary) and the autonomic nervous system (involuntary).

Q: What is the autonomic nervous system?
A: The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing. It has two divisions: the sympathetic (arousal) and parasympathetic (calming).

Q: What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
A: The sympathetic nervous system activates the "fight-or-flight" response, increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and releasing adrenaline to prepare the body for emergencies.

Q: What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?
A: The parasympathetic nervous system promotes "rest-and-digest" functions, slowing heart rate, stimulating digestion, and conserving energy after a stressful event.

Q: What is the cerebral cortex?
A: The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-order functions such as thinking, planning, language, and voluntary movement. It is divided into four lobes.

Q: What are the four lobes of the brain?
A: The four lobes are: frontal (planning, decision-making), parietal (sensory processing), temporal (hearing, language), and occipital (vision).

Q: What is the frontal lobe responsible for?
A: The frontal lobe is responsible for executive functions, planning, decision-making, personality, and voluntary movement. It contains the prefrontal cortex and the primary motor cortex.

Q: What does the occipital lobe do?
A: The occipital lobe, located at the back of the brain, is primarily responsible for visual processing. Damage can cause visual disturbances or blindness.

Q: What is the limbic system?
A: The limbic system is a group of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory. Key structures include the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.

Q: What is the function of the amygdala?
A: The amygdala plays a central role in processing emotions, especially fear and aggression. It is critical for emotional learning and the fight-or-flight response.

Q: What does the hippocampus do?
A: The hippocampus is essential for forming new long-term memories and spatial navigation. Damage to the hippocampus (as in patient H.M.) results in an inability to form new declarative memories.

Q: What is the hypothalamus?
A: The hypothalamus regulates homeostasis — body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and the endocrine system. It links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

Q: What is the thalamus?
A: The thalamus acts as the brain's relay station, routing incoming sensory information (except smell) to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex for processing.

Q: What is the cerebellum?
A: The cerebellum, located at the back of the brain, coordinates balance, movement, and motor learning. It helps fine-tune voluntary movements for smooth, precise actions.

Q: What is the difference between sensation and perception?
A: Sensation is the process of detecting physical energy from the environment through sensory receptors. Perception is the brain's interpretation and organization of that sensory information.

Q: What is absolute threshold?
A: The absolute threshold is the minimum level of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. For example, a candle flame visible from 30 miles on a clear night.

Q: What is the difference threshold (just noticeable difference)?
A: The difference threshold is the minimum difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time. Weber's Law states this difference is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.

Q: What is sensory adaptation?
A: Sensory adaptation is the decreased sensitivity to a constant, unchanging stimulus over time. For example, you stop noticing the feeling of clothes on your skin after wearing them.

Q: What are the stages of sleep?
A: Sleep has stages: NREM Stage 1 (light sleep), Stage 2 (sleep spindles), Stage 3 (deep/slow-wave sleep), and REM sleep (rapid eye movement, vivid dreaming). A full cycle takes about 90 minutes.

Q: What is REM sleep?
A: REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is characterized by fast brain waves, vivid dreaming, and temporary muscle paralysis. It is important for memory consolidation and emotional processing.

Q: What is circadian rhythm?
A: A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle, body temperature, and hormone release. It is influenced by light and controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).

Q: What is classical conditioning?
A: Classical conditioning, discovered by Ivan Pavlov, is learning through association. A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it alone elicits a conditioned response.

Q: What are the key terms in classical conditioning?
A: UCS (unconditioned stimulus) naturally triggers a response. UCR (unconditioned response) is the natural reaction. CS (conditioned stimulus) is the learned trigger. CR (conditioned response) is the learned reaction.

Q: What is operant conditioning?
A: Operant conditioning is learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences (reinforcement or punishment). It was formalized by B.F. Skinner.

Q: What is positive reinforcement?
A: Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior recurring. Example: giving a treat to a dog for sitting on command.

Q: What is negative reinforcement?
A: Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior to increase that behavior. Example: taking aspirin removes a headache, making you more likely to take aspirin in the future.

Q: What is the difference between punishment and reinforcement?
A: Reinforcement (positive or negative) increases a behavior. Punishment (positive or negative) decreases a behavior.

Q: What is observational learning?
A: Observational learning (or modeling), studied by Albert Bandura, is learning by watching others. His Bobo doll experiment showed children imitate aggressive behavior they observe in adults.

Q: What is encoding in memory?
A: Encoding is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. It can be visual (iconic), acoustic (echoic), or semantic (meaning-based).

Q: What is the difference between short-term and long-term memory?
A: Short-term memory (STM) holds a limited amount of information (~7±2 items) for about 20–30 seconds. Long-term memory (LTM) has virtually unlimited capacity and can store information indefinitely.

Q: What is working memory?
A: Working memory (Baddeley's model) is an active system for temporarily holding and manipulating information. It includes the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive, and episodic buffer.

Q: What is the serial position effect?
A: The serial position effect shows that people tend to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than items in the middle.

Q: What is the difference between explicit and implicit memory?
A: Explicit (declarative) memory involves conscious recall of facts (semantic) and events (episodic). Implicit (nondeclarative) memory involves unconscious skills and conditioned responses (procedural memory).

Q: What is retrograde amnesia?
A: Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall memories formed before a brain injury or trauma. The person cannot remember past events but can typically form new memories.

Q: What is anterograde amnesia?
A: Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories after a brain injury or trauma. The famous case of patient H.M. demonstrated this after bilateral hippocampal removal.

Q: What is the misinformation effect?
A: The misinformation effect occurs when post-event information distorts memory of the original event. Elizabeth Loftus's research showed how leading questions can alter eyewitness testimony.

Q: What is the forgetting curve?
A: The forgetting curve, discovered by Hermann Ebbinghaus, shows that memory retention declines rapidly at first and then levels off. Most forgetting happens within the first hour of learning.

Q: What is retrieval practice (testing effect)?
A: Retrieval practice is the finding that actively recalling information strengthens memory more effectively than simply re-reading material. It is one of the most effective study strategies.

Q: What is intelligence according to psychology?
A: Intelligence is the mental ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. It is measured through standardized IQ tests but remains a debated concept.

Q: What is Spearman's g factor?
A: Charles Spearman proposed that intelligence includes a general factor (g) that underlies all intellectual abilities, plus specific factors (s) for particular tasks.

Q: What is Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?
A: Howard Gardner proposed 8 distinct intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. This challenges the single-IQ view.

Q: What is Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence?
A: Robert Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence: analytical (academic problem-solving), creative (generating novel ideas), and practical (adapting to everyday situations).

Q: What are Piaget's four stages of cognitive development?
A: 1) Sensorimotor (0–2 years), 2) Preoperational (2–7 years), 3) Concrete operational (7–11 years), 4) Formal operational (12+ years). Each stage represents a qualitatively different way of thinking.

Q: What is object permanence?
A: Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. According to Piaget, it develops during the sensorimotor stage (around 8 months).

Q: What is egocentrism in Piaget's theory?
A: Egocentrism is the inability to see things from another person's perspective. It is characteristic of the preoperational stage. Piaget demonstrated it with the three-mountain task.

Q: What is conservation in cognitive development?
A: Conservation is the understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. Children in the preoperational stage typically fail conservation tasks (e.g., pouring water between different-shaped glasses).

Q: What are Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development?
A: Erikson proposed eight stages from infancy to old age: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, integrity vs. despair.

Q: What is the identity vs. role confusion stage?
A: This is Erikson's adolescent stage (12–18 years). The main task is developing a coherent sense of self and personal identity. Failure leads to confusion about one's role in life.

Q: What is attachment theory?
A: Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby and expanded by Mary Ainsworth, proposes that early bonds with caregivers shape emotional development. Ainsworth identified secure, avoidant, and anxious-ambivalent attachment styles.

Q: What is Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
A: Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional (self-interest), conventional (social rules and conformity), and postconventional (universal ethical principles).

Q: What are the Big Five personality traits (OCEAN)?
A: The Big Five are: Openness (curiosity), Conscientiousness (organization), Extraversion (sociability), Agreeableness (cooperativeness), and Neuroticism (emotional instability).

Q: What are Freud's psychosexual stages?
A: Freud proposed five stages: oral (0–1 year), anal (1–3), phallic (3–6), latency (6–puberty), and genital (puberty onward). He believed unresolved conflicts at any stage cause fixation.

Q: What are defense mechanisms?
A: Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies the ego uses to reduce anxiety from conflicts between the id and superego. Examples include repression, projection, rationalization, and displacement.

Q: What is repression?
A: Repression is a Freudian defense mechanism in which threatening thoughts or memories are pushed into the unconscious. The person is unaware of the repressed material but it may still influence behavior.

Q: What is the difference between the humanistic and psychoanalytic perspectives?
A: Psychoanalysis focuses on unconscious drives and childhood conflicts (Freud). Humanism focuses on conscious experience, free will, and the drive toward self-actualization (Rogers, Maslow).

Q: What is self-actualization?
A: Self-actualization, central to Maslow's hierarchy, is the realization of one's full potential. It represents the highest level of psychological development, characterized by creativity, morality, and acceptance.

Q: What is the DSM-5?
A: The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition) is the standard classification system used by mental health professionals in the U.S. to diagnose psychological disorders.

Q: What is generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)?
A: GAD is characterized by persistent, excessive worry about various everyday matters for at least 6 months. Symptoms include restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and sleep disturbance.

Q: What is major depressive disorder (MDD)?
A: MDD involves persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in activities for at least two weeks. It may include changes in sleep, appetite, energy, and suicidal thoughts.

Q: What is schizophrenia?
A: Schizophrenia is a severe disorder characterized by distorted thinking, hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech or behavior. It typically emerges in late adolescence or early adulthood.

Q: What are positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia?
A: Positive symptoms are excesses (hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking). Negative symptoms are deficits (flat affect, social withdrawal, reduced motivation, poverty of speech).

Q: What is bipolar disorder?
A: Bipolar disorder involves alternating episodes of mania (elevated mood, high energy, impulsivity) and depression. Bipolar I includes full manic episodes; Bipolar II includes hypomanic and depressive episodes.

Q: What is obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?
A: OCD is characterized by unwanted, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) performed to reduce anxiety. Examples include excessive handwashing or checking locks.

Q: What is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?
A: PTSD develops after exposure to a traumatic event and features symptoms such as flashbacks, nightmares, hypervigilance, avoidance of reminders, and emotional numbing lasting more than one month.

Q: What is the difference between phobias and generalized anxiety?
A: A phobia is an intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation (e.g., spiders, heights). GAD involves excessive worry about many different aspects of life without a specific trigger.

Q: What is antisocial personality disorder?
A: Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a persistent pattern of disregard for others' rights, deceit, impulsivity, aggression, and lack of remorse. It is associated with criminal behavior.