World History

Prehistory spans from the emergence of Homo sapiens (~300,000 years ago) to the invention of writing (~3,200 BCE). During this vast period, humans developed tools, language, art, and social structures without leaving written records.

The Neolithic Revolution (~10,000 BCE) was the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to settled agriculture. It first occurred in the Fertile Crescent and led to permanent settlements, population growth, and the rise of complex societies.

The Agricultural Revolution began in the Fertile Crescent (modern-day Iraq, Syria, and Turkey) around 10,000 BCE. Crops like wheat and barley were among the first domesticated plants.

Domestication of animals (~10,000–4,000 BCE) provided reliable food sources (meat, milk, eggs), labor for farming, and transportation. It also led to the spread of zoonotic diseases, which later shaped immunity patterns across civilizations.

Sumer, located in southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), is often regarded as the world's first civilization, emerging around 4,500 BCE. The Sumerians developed cuneiform writing, city-states, and complex irrigation systems.

Writing, invented by the Sumerians around 3,200 BCE (cuneiform), allowed record-keeping, codification of laws, literature, and the transmission of knowledge across generations. It marks the traditional boundary between prehistory and history.

Hammurabi was a Babylonian king (r. 1792–1750 BCE) who created one of the earliest written legal codes. The Code of Hammurabi established standardized punishments and is famous for its "eye for an eye" principle.

The Egyptian pyramids, especially the Great Pyramid of Giza (~2,560 BCE), were monumental tombs for pharaohs. They demonstrated advanced engineering, centralized state power, and religious beliefs about the afterlife.

Narmer (also called Menes), around 3,100 BCE, is traditionally credited with unifying Upper and Lower Egypt and founding the First Dynasty. This unification created one of the longest-lasting civilizations in history.

The Bronze Age (~3,300–1,200 BCE) was a period when civilizations began using bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) for tools and weapons. It saw the rise of major civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, and China.

The Bronze Age Collapse saw the fall of multiple civilizations (Hittites, Mycenaeans, Egyptian New Kingdom) around 1,200 BCE. Causes likely included invasions by the "Sea Peoples," drought, earthquakes, and disruption of trade networks.

Major world religions include Hinduism (~1,500 BCE), Judaism (~1,200 BCE), Buddhism (~500 BCE), Christianity (~30 CE), and Islam (~610 CE). Each profoundly shaped laws, culture, and politics across vast regions.