Behavioral Science

Classical conditioning, discovered by Ivan Pavlov, is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response. Pavlov demonstrated this with dogs salivating to a bell.

The four elements are: UCS (unconditioned stimulus — food), UCR (unconditioned response — salivation), CS (conditioned stimulus — bell), and CR (conditioned response — salivation to bell alone).

Acquisition is the initial learning phase where the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus until the conditioned response is established. Timing matters — the CS should precede the UCS.

Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response gradually diminishes. The association weakens over time without reinforcement.

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period. It shows that extinction doesn't erase the original learning — it suppresses it.

Stimulus generalization occurs when a conditioned response is triggered by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Example: Little Albert feared not only white rats but also white rabbits and fur coats.

Stimulus discrimination is the ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli. The organism responds to the CS but not to other similar stimuli, showing selective learning.

Higher-order conditioning occurs when a new neutral stimulus is paired with an existing conditioned stimulus to produce a new conditioned response. Example: pairing a light with a bell that already triggers salivation.

Taste aversion is a one-trial learning phenomenon where an organism avoids a food after a single pairing with illness. It was studied by John Garcia and demonstrates biological preparedness in conditioning.

Operant conditioning, formalized by B.F. Skinner, is learning where behavior is controlled by its consequences — reinforcement increases behavior, punishment decreases it.

Edward Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to recur.

A Skinner box is a laboratory apparatus used to study operant conditioning. It contains a lever or button the animal can press, a food dispenser for reinforcement, and devices to record behavior automatically.