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Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons whose acyclic members follow the general formula \(C_nH_{2n+2}\). They contain only sigma (single) bonds between carbons and between carbon and h...
Benzene and other aromatic rings obey Hückel's rule: the ring system must be cyclic, planar, fully conjugated, and possess \(4n+2\) pi electrons, where n is an integer (yielding 6,...
Alcohols feature a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to an \(sp^3\) carbon and are named with the suffix -ol (ethanol, propanol). They are classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°), or...
Aldehydes feature a carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen (R-CHO) and are named with the suffix -al (methanal, ethanal). The carbonyl carbon is \(sp^2\) hybridized with tr...
Carboxylic acids are defined by the carboxyl group -COOH, in which a carbonyl and a hydroxyl share the same carbon. They are named with the suffix -oic acid (ethanoic acid) and the...
Amines are characterized by a nitrogen atom bonded to one or more carbon groups with a lone pair (R-NH₂). They are classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°) by t...
Alkyl halides (R-X) bear a halogen on an \(sp^3\) carbon and are substrates for two competing substitution pathways: \(S_N2\) (bimolecular, backside attack, leading to inversion of...