Amino Supplements Deck
What is the evidence for chromium in blood sugar control?
Deficiency: Keshan disease (cardiomyopathy, endemic in China), Kashin-Beck disease (osteoarthropathy), impaired immunity, thyroid dysfunction, cognitive decline, infertility; Toxicity (selenosis, >400 mcg/day): garlic breath, hair/nail loss, nausea, fatigue, irritability, nerve damage
Anxiety reduction (200-400 mg, acute effect within 30 min); Stress resilience (200 mg/day); Sleep quality (200 mg before bed, improves quality without sedation); Focus and attention (100-200 mg + 50-100 mg caffeine, superior to either alone); ADHD adjunct (200-400 mg); blood pressure reduction during stress; neuroprotection
Chromium picolinate (200-1000 mcg/day) showed improvements in fasting glucose and HbA1c in type 2 diabetes in some studies; results inconsistent across trials; Cochrane review found weak evidence; most beneficial in chromium-deficient populations; American Diabetes Association does not recommend routine supplementation
Fetal: neural tube closure, hippocampal development, lifelong cognitive enhancement (epigenetic programming); Infancy/childhood: brain growth, memory formation; Adults: acetylcholine synthesis (learning, memory, attention), phospholipid membrane integrity; Elderly: may slow cognitive decline; Alpha-GPC shows benefit in Alzheimer's (1200 mg/day) and vascular dementia
Amino Supplements Deck
What is the relationship between homocysteine and B vitamins?
Elevated homocysteine is cardiovascular risk factor; B6, B12, and folate required for homocysteine metabolism; B12 and folate remethylate homocysteine to methionine; B6 converts homocysteine to cysteine; supplementation lowers homocysteine but mixed evidence for cardiovascular outcomes
Doses >2000 mg/day may cause diarrhea, nausea, abdominal cramps; increases oxalate excretion (potential kidney stone risk in susceptible individuals); may interfere with certain lab tests (glucose, occult blood); caution in hemochromatosis (iron overload); rebound scurvy possible with abrupt cessation of megadoses
Oysters (74 mg/3 oz, richest source), red meat, poultry, crab, lobster, fortified cereals, beans, nuts, whole grains, dairy; animal sources more bioavailable than plant (phytate in plants inhibits zinc absorption); soaking/sprouting legumes reduces phytate
Required for mucin synthesis (glycoproteins that protect GI tract lining); maintains gut barrier function; deficiency leads to digestive disturbances and reduced mucosal protection; important for intestinal health
Amino Supplements Deck
What is threonine's relationship with the nervous system?
High-protein foods: beef, poultry, pork, fish, eggs, dairy, soy products; artificial sweetener aspartame = aspartic acid + phenylalanine (must be avoided in PKU); particularly concentrated in: whey, casein, soy protein isolate
Most abundant protein in the body (~30% of total protein); 28 types identified; Type I (90%): skin, bones, tendons, ligaments; Type II: cartilage; Type III: skin, blood vessels, organs; composed of triple helix of proline, glycine, and hydroxyproline; requires vitamin C for synthesis
Glutathione conjugation: NAC, glycine, glutamine (GSH precursors), selenium (GPx); Sulfation: sulfur amino acids (methionine, cysteine, taurine), MSM, molybdenum; Glucuronidation: calcium-D-glucarate, B vitamins; Glycine conjugation: glycine (detoxifies benzoate, salicylates); Methylation: SAMe, folate, B12, betaine; Acetylation: pantothenic acid (B5), acetyl-CoA; balanced support of all pathways is essential
Precursor for glycine (inhibitory neurotransmitter); may influence glycine levels in spinal cord and brainstem; high concentrations in central nervous system proteins; animal studies show threonine deficiency alters neurotransmitter levels
Amino Supplements Deck
What is valine's specific role compared to other BCAAs?
More glucogenic than leucine (can be converted to glucose); less potent mTOR activator than leucine; supports nitrogen shuttling; important for muscle repair; may reduce muscle fatigue; works synergistically with isoleucine and leucine
Increases homocysteine levels (if B vitamins inadequate); may promote oxidative stress; animal studies show accelerated aging with high methionine; epidemiological links to increased CVD risk with very high intake; balance is important
AI: 35 mcg/day for men, 25 mcg/day for women; food sources: broccoli (11 mcg/cup), grape juice, whole grains, meat, brewer's yeast, potatoes, green beans; trivalent chromium (Cr3+) is the safe dietary form; hexavalent chromium (Cr6+) is industrial toxin
Fat-soluble quinone (ubiquinone) synthesized endogenously from tyrosine and mevalonate pathway; essential component of mitochondrial electron transport chain (Complex I → III shuttle); required for ~95% of cellular ATP production; also a potent lipid-soluble antioxidant; highest concentrations in heart, liver, kidneys, and pancreas
Amino Supplements Deck
How are amino acids categorized by their metabolic fate?
Take with B-complex vitamins (especially B12, folate, B6); divide doses if supplementing SAMe (unstable, enteric-coated best); methionine-containing protein best with meals; avoid high-dose isolated methionine without adequate B vitamins
Muscle wasting, poor appetite, insomnia, reduced growth, skin sensitivity, cognitive fog, and maple syrup urine disease symptoms when combined with other BCAA metabolism defects (neurological decline, sweet-smelling urine)
During growth (infancy, childhood), pregnancy, lactation, severe injury, burns, sepsis, and post-surgery; endogenous production insufficient for demands; body cannot meet increased requirements for tissue repair and immune function
Glucogenic: carbon skeleton → pyruvate or TCA intermediates → glucose (alanine, glycine, serine, threonine, valine, aspartate, glutamate, proline, histidine, arginine, methionine, cysteine); Ketogenic: → acetyl-CoA or acetoacetate (leucine, lysine); Both: isoleucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, tyrosine, threonine
Amino Supplements Deck
How does the glucose-alanine cycle work?
Valine is large neutral amino acid (LNAA); competes with tryptophan for LAT1 transport across blood-brain barrier; higher valine:tryptophan ratio reduces brain tryptophan uptake → less serotonin → delayed central fatigue during exercise
Leucine and isoleucine stimulate insulin secretion; enhance insulin sensitivity in muscle; improve glucose uptake independent of insulin; may help stabilize blood glucose; isoleucine particularly effective for glucose regulation; useful for athletes and potentially diabetics (under supervision)
Muscle protein breakdown → alanine + glutamate; alanine transports to liver; liver converts alanine to glucose (via gluconeogenesis); glucose returns to muscle; transports ammonia safely as alanine; critical during fasting/exercise
Deficiency: Keshan disease (cardiomyopathy, endemic in China), Kashin-Beck disease (osteoarthropathy), impaired immunity, thyroid dysfunction, cognitive decline, infertility; Toxicity (selenosis, >400 mcg/day): garlic breath, hair/nail loss, nausea, fatigue, irritability, nerve damage
Amino Supplements Deck
What forms of histidine supplements are available?
Pre-workout (30-60 min): caffeine (3-6 mg/kg), citrulline malate (6-8 g), beta-alanine (3.2-6.4 g/day taken any time); Intra-workout: EAAs or BCAAs (10-15 g) if fasted; Post-workout: whey protein (20-40 g, providing 2-3 g leucine) + creatine (5 g); Daily: creatine (5 g), vitamin D (2000-5000 IU), magnesium (400 mg), omega-3 (1-2 g EPA+DHA), adequate total protein (1.6-2.2 g/kg)
L-histidine (free form), histidine HCl, histidine methyl ester, beta-alanyl-histidine (carnosine), and as part of peptide blends; bioavailability is high at ~80-90%
Creatine: avoid in advanced CKD (not nephrotoxic but increases creatinine, complicating monitoring); Protein/amino acid supplements: reduce total protein per nephrology guidance; Potassium: monitor with supplements (hyperkalemia risk); Phosphorus: limit (collagen supplements may add phosphorus); Magnesium: use cautiously (reduced excretion); Arginine: may be beneficial at moderate doses (NO support for renal blood flow)
Primarily studied as part of BCAA blends; reduces perceived exertion; decreases muscle damage markers (CK, LDH); may reduce central fatigue via competition with tryptophan for BBB transport (reduces serotonin-related fatigue); synergistic with other BCAAs
Amino Supplements Deck
What is the role of vitamin K2 in bone health?
Glutathione conjugation: NAC, glycine, glutamine (GSH precursors), selenium (GPx); Sulfation: sulfur amino acids (methionine, cysteine, taurine), MSM, molybdenum; Glucuronidation: calcium-D-glucarate, B vitamins; Glycine conjugation: glycine (detoxifies benzoate, salicylates); Methylation: SAMe, folate, B12, betaine; Acetylation: pantothenic acid (B5), acetyl-CoA; balanced support of all pathways is essential
Meta-analyses (Miller 2005) suggested high-dose (>400 IU/day) may increase all-cause mortality; SELECT trial showed no prostate cancer prevention; however, methodological concerns in meta-analyses; gamma-tocopherol and tocotrienols may have distinct benefits overlooked in alpha-tocopherol-only trials
Dark-skinned individuals (more melanin blocks UVB); elderly (reduced skin synthesis, decreased kidney conversion); obese (vitamin D sequestered in fat); northern latitudes (>37°N in winter); indoor workers; sunscreen users; breastfed infants; malabsorption conditions (celiac, Crohn's, gastric bypass)
Activates osteocalcin (bone Gla protein) via carboxylation; carboxylated osteocalcin binds calcium and incorporates it into bone matrix; MK-4 at 45 mg/day reduced fractures in Japanese studies; MK-7 at 180 mcg/day improved bone mineral density in 3-year Dutch trial
Amino Supplements Deck
What is the relationship between magnesium and vitamin D?
20-25 mg/kg body weight (~1.5-2.0 g/day for 70-80 kg adult); athletes may benefit from 2-4 g/day; therapeutic doses up to 10-12 g/day used in research (split doses)
Empty stomach for better absorption; morning for antioxidant support through day; divided doses if taking >600 mg (NAC half-life ~6 hours); with vitamin C enhances antioxidant effect; after acetaminophen overdose: IV loading dose then continuous infusion
Magnesium required for vitamin D metabolism: needed by enzymes that convert D to its active form (CYP2R1, CYP27B1); Mg deficiency can cause vitamin D resistance; supplementing D without adequate Mg may be ineffective; Mg also needed for vitamin D binding protein transport
Cofactor for cuproenzymes: ceruloplasmin (iron mobilization/oxidation), cytochrome c oxidase (mitochondrial electron transport), superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn-SOD, antioxidant), lysyl oxidase (collagen/elastin cross-linking), dopamine beta-hydroxylase (dopamine→norepinephrine), tyrosinase (melanin synthesis); involved in iron metabolism, energy production, connective tissue, and neurotransmitter balance
Amino Supplements Deck
What are the deficiency symptoms of vitamin A?
Night blindness (nyctalopia), dry eyes (xerosis), Bitot's spots (foamy patches on conjunctiva), corneal ulceration (xerophthalmia), impaired immunity (increased infections), skin lesions (hyperkeratosis), and in severe deficiency: blindness and increased mortality
Chemically identical; glutamate bound in protein vs free glutamate; MSG is sodium salt of glutamic acid; body metabolizes identically; concerns about MSG sensitivity but research shows most people tolerate normal amounts
EPA+DHA: fatty fish (salmon: 1.5-2.2 g per 3.5 oz, mackerel, sardines, anchovies, herring), fish oil, krill oil, algal oil (vegan DHA source); ALA: flaxseeds (6.7 g/oz), chia seeds, hemp seeds, walnuts, canola oil, soybeans; wild fish generally higher in omega-3 than farmed
100-300 mg/day improves memory, attention, and processing speed in age-related cognitive decline; reduces cortisol response to exercise stress (blunts HPA axis); may improve ADHD symptoms in children (200 mg/day); historically from bovine brain (BSE concerns); now from soy or sunflower lecithin; FDA qualified health claim for cognitive dysfunction and dementia
Amino Supplements Deck
How is calcium homeostasis regulated?
Generally safe at doses of 3 g/day for short-term (2-4 weeks); long-term safety unknown; may cause: irritability, headache, and increased libido; not recommended for teenagers (hormonal effects); limited research beyond 12-16 weeks
PTH (parathyroid hormone): released when blood Ca low → increases bone resorption, kidney reabsorption, vitamin D activation; Calcitonin (thyroid): released when blood Ca high → inhibits osteoclasts; Vitamin D (calcitriol): increases intestinal Ca absorption; tight regulation maintains serum Ca at 8.5-10.5 mg/dL
Required for synthesis of hemoglobin's beta-globin chains; deficiency leads to microcytic anemia; particularly important during periods of rapid growth and pregnancy
Blunted MPS response to amino acids and exercise; occurs in: elderly (sarcopenia, need ~40 g protein/meal vs 20 g in young), obese, physically inactive, critically ill, chronic inflammation; mechanisms: impaired mTOR signaling, reduced amino acid transport, inflammation (TNF-alpha); overcome with higher protein dose, leucine enrichment, resistance exercise
Amino Supplements Deck
How do BCAAs compare to whey protein for muscle building?
Creatine monohydrate (gold standard, most studied, cheapest); micronized monohydrate (finer particles, better mixing); creatine HCl (higher solubility, lower dose claimed); buffered creatine (Kre-Alkalyn, no proven advantage); creatine ethyl ester (inferior, converts to creatinine); creatine magnesium chelate
They work in balance; vitamin A can antagonize vitamin D (both compete for retinoid X receptor); very high vitamin A may reduce vitamin D benefits; optimal ratio debated (some suggest 5-10:1 D:A); adequate levels of both important
Whey protein is superior: provides all essential amino acids, higher leucine content (2-3 g per 20-25 g), promotes positive net protein balance, provides substrate for new muscle; BCAAs alone may only reduce breakdown without providing building blocks; BCAAs useful during fasting or when protein not available
BCAAs: preferred fuel for liver disease patients (compete with aromatic AAs for BBB transport, reducing hepatic encephalopathy); NAC: glutathione precursor, acetaminophen antidote, reduces liver fibrosis markers; SAMe: promotes glutathione, phosphatidylcholine synthesis (membrane integrity); Glycine: anti-inflammatory, protects against alcohol liver damage; Taurine: bile acid conjugation; Glutathione: master hepatoprotectant
Amino Supplements Deck
How do amino acids support liver health?
Most abundant protein in the body (~30% of total protein); 28 types identified; Type I (90%): skin, bones, tendons, ligaments; Type II: cartilage; Type III: skin, blood vessels, organs; composed of triple helix of proline, glycine, and hydroxyproline; requires vitamin C for synthesis
Wet beriberi: high-output cardiac failure, peripheral edema, tachycardia; Dry beriberi: peripheral neuropathy, muscle wasting, foot drop; Wernicke encephalopathy: confusion, ataxia, ophthalmoplegia (medical emergency); Korsakoff syndrome: irreversible anterograde amnesia, confabulation; Wernicke-Korsakoff common in alcoholics; IV thiamine is first-line emergency treatment
BCAAs: preferred fuel for liver disease patients (compete with aromatic AAs for BBB transport, reducing hepatic encephalopathy); NAC: glutathione precursor, acetaminophen antidote, reduces liver fibrosis markers; SAMe: promotes glutathione, phosphatidylcholine synthesis (membrane integrity); Glycine: anti-inflammatory, protects against alcohol liver damage; Taurine: bile acid conjugation; Glutathione: master hepatoprotectant
Cysteine is rate-limiting amino acid for glutathione; glutamate + cysteine → gamma-glutamylcysteine (via glutamate-cysteine ligase); + glycine → glutathione (via glutathione synthetase); low cysteine = low glutathione despite adequate glycine/glutamate
Amino Supplements Deck
What is the optimal timing for B-complex supplementation?
Morning or early afternoon (energy production, may interfere with sleep if taken late), with meals (better absorption, reduces nausea), divided doses (B vitamins water-soluble, excreted in 4-6 hours), consistently for steady state
Anxiety reduction (200-400 mg, acute effect within 30 min); Stress resilience (200 mg/day); Sleep quality (200 mg before bed, improves quality without sedation); Focus and attention (100-200 mg + 50-100 mg caffeine, superior to either alone); ADHD adjunct (200-400 mg); blood pressure reduction during stress; neuroprotection
K1 (phylloquinone) from green leafy vegetables; K2 (menaquinones, MK-4 through MK-13) from fermented foods and bacterial synthesis; K3 (menadione, synthetic, not recommended); K2 subtypes: MK-4 (short-acting, animal sources) and MK-7 (long-acting, natto, fermented foods)
Blunted MPS response to amino acids and exercise; occurs in: elderly (sarcopenia, need ~40 g protein/meal vs 20 g in young), obese, physically inactive, critically ill, chronic inflammation; mechanisms: impaired mTOR signaling, reduced amino acid transport, inflammation (TNF-alpha); overcome with higher protein dose, leucine enrichment, resistance exercise
Amino Supplements Deck
What is L-carnitine and what is its primary function?
Pre-workout (30-60 min before) for MPS priming; post-workout (within 2 hours) for recovery; with each meal containing protein (3-4 meals/day) for 24-hour protein balance;睡前 2-3 g may reduce nighttime muscle breakdown in elderly
L-serine powder/capsules; phosphatidylserine complex (usually 100 mg capsules), D-serine (research use), serine-containing protein powders; phosphatidylserine from soy or sunflower lecithin
Tier 1 (strong evidence): protein (20-40 g with leucine, within 2 hours), creatine (5 g/day), tart cherry juice (30 mL concentrate twice daily, reduces inflammation and DOMS); Tier 2 (moderate evidence): omega-3 (2-3 g/day), curcumin (500 mg enhanced form), HMB (3 g/day during heavy training); Tier 3 (emerging): collagen + vitamin C (15 g + 50 mg, 30-60 min pre-exercise for tendon/ligament support), ashwagandha (600 mg/day)
Quaternary ammonium compound synthesized from lysine and methionine (requires B6, niacin, vitamin C, iron); primary role: shuttles long-chain fatty acids across inner mitochondrial membrane (carnitine palmitoyltransferase I and II system) for beta-oxidation; also exports toxic acetyl groups from mitochondria; concentrated in skeletal and cardiac muscle
Amino Supplements Deck
What is the evidence for high-dose vitamin C therapy?
Dairy: milk (300 mg/cup), yogurt (300 mg/cup), cheese (200 mg/oz); Non-dairy: sardines with bones (325 mg/3 oz), fortified orange juice, tofu (set with calcium sulfate), kale, broccoli, bok choy, almonds; oxalate-rich vegetables (spinach) have low calcium bioavailability despite high content
Rhodiola: more stimulating/energizing, better for acute stress and mental fatigue, faster onset (single dose effective), morning use; Ashwagandha: more calming/restorative, better for chronic stress and anxiety, builds over weeks, evening use compatible; both reduce cortisol; can be combined (rhodiola AM, ashwagandha PM); rhodiola may interfere with sleep if taken late; ashwagandha promotes sleep
Vitamin D increases calcium absorption; vitamin K2 (MK-7) activates osteocalcin (directs calcium to bones) and matrix Gla protein (prevents arterial calcification); without K2, excess calcium may deposit in arteries; combined supplementation may improve both bone density and cardiovascular health
IV vitamin C (25-200 g) studied in cancer (improved quality of life, mixed efficacy data); oral megadoses (1-10 g) for cold prevention/treatment show modest benefit; pharmacokinetics limit oral absorption (~70% at 500 mg, ~50% at 1250 mg); IV bypasses this limitation
Amino Supplements Deck
What is the AI for choline and is deficiency common?
Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase: converts 5,10-MTHF to 5-MTHF (active folate for methylation); C677T polymorphism: homozygous (TT, ~10-15% of population) reduces enzyme activity by ~70%; A1298C: reduces activity ~30-40%; consequences: elevated homocysteine, reduced methylation, potential increased risk for cardiovascular disease, neural tube defects, depression; managed with methylfolate (not folic acid) and methylcobalamin
Men: 550 mg/day; Women: 425 mg/day; Pregnancy: 450 mg/day; Lactation: 550 mg/day; upper limit: 3500 mg/day; ~90% of Americans do not meet AI; eggs are best source (147 mg per egg); liver, beef, chicken, fish, cruciferous vegetables, soybeans, wheat germ; MTHFR mutations increase choline requirements
Increased alanine production during exercise; transports nitrogen from muscle to liver; converted to glucose in liver (Cori cycle alternative); helps maintain blood glucose; spares muscle glycogen
Precursor for histamine synthesis; essential for metal ion binding in enzymes (zinc, iron, copper); critical component of active sites in many metalloenzymes; maintains pH buffering through imidazole group
Amino Supplements Deck
What safety considerations apply to isoleucine supplementation?
Most abundant protein in the body (~30% of total protein); 28 types identified; Type I (90%): skin, bones, tendons, ligaments; Type II: cartilage; Type III: skin, blood vessels, organs; composed of triple helix of proline, glycine, and hydroxyproline; requires vitamin C for synthesis
Caffeine: increases alertness, energy, reaction time but may increase anxiety and jitteriness; L-theanine: promotes calm focus, reduces anxiety; Combined (2:1 theanine:caffeine, e.g., 200 mg + 100 mg): enhanced attention, faster reaction time, improved task switching, reduced susceptibility to distraction, without caffeine's anxiogenic effects; naturally occurs in tea
Cysteine is rate-limiting amino acid for glutathione; glutamate + cysteine → gamma-glutamylcysteine (via glutamate-cysteine ligase); + glycine → glutathione (via glutathione synthetase); low cysteine = low glutathione despite adequate glycine/glutamate
Generally safe up to 20-30 g/day; may cause fatigue and increased ammonia levels at very high doses; caution in maple syrup urine disease (MSUD); should be balanced with other BCAAs to avoid amino acid imbalances
Amino Supplements Deck
What nutrients are required for proper methylation?
Methionine (dietary methyl source); Folate/5-MTHF (methyl carrier); Vitamin B12/methylcobalamin (methyl transfer); Vitamin B6/P5P (transsulfuration pathway); Vitamin B2/riboflavin (MTHFR cofactor); Betaine/TMG (alternative methyl donor); Zinc and magnesium (enzyme cofactors); choline (betaine precursor)
Creatine: avoid in advanced CKD (not nephrotoxic but increases creatinine, complicating monitoring); Protein/amino acid supplements: reduce total protein per nephrology guidance; Potassium: monitor with supplements (hyperkalemia risk); Phosphorus: limit (collagen supplements may add phosphorus); Magnesium: use cautiously (reduced excretion); Arginine: may be beneficial at moderate doses (NO support for renal blood flow)
L-valine powder/capsules (rarely used alone); BCAA blends (2:1:1, 3:1:1, 4:1:1 leucine:isoleucine:valine); intravenous amino acid solutions; protein powders; pre-workout supplements often include BCAAs
L-carnitine (standard, 1-3 g/day, limited BBB crossing); Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR, crosses BBB, cognitive benefits, 500-2000 mg/day); L-carnitine L-tartrate (LCLT, exercise recovery, faster absorption, 1-2 g/day); Propionyl-L-carnitine (PLC, cardiovascular, peripheral circulation, 500-2000 mg/day); glycine propionyl-L-carnitine (GPLC, NO support)
Amino Supplements Deck
What is the L-theanine and caffeine synergy?
20-25 mg/kg body weight (~1.5-2.0 g/day for 70-80 kg adult); athletes may benefit from 2-4 g/day; therapeutic doses up to 10-12 g/day used in research (split doses)
Requires vitamin B6 for metabolism; synergistic with lysine and methionine for connective tissue synthesis; competes with serine for transport; works with glycine in one-carbon metabolism; adequate protein intake enhances absorption
Iron is a pro-oxidant (Fenton reaction generates hydroxyl radicals); excess causes oxidative damage to liver, heart, pancreas; hemochromatosis (genetic iron overload) affects 1 in 200 people; never supplement without confirmed deficiency; acute iron poisoning can be fatal in children; upper limit 45 mg/day
Caffeine: increases alertness, energy, reaction time but may increase anxiety and jitteriness; L-theanine: promotes calm focus, reduces anxiety; Combined (2:1 theanine:caffeine, e.g., 200 mg + 100 mg): enhanced attention, faster reaction time, improved task switching, reduced susceptibility to distraction, without caffeine's anxiogenic effects; naturally occurs in tea
Amino Supplements Deck
What are the biological functions of iron?
High-protein foods: beef, poultry, pork, fish, eggs, dairy, soy products; artificial sweetener aspartame = aspartic acid + phenylalanine (must be avoided in PKU); particularly concentrated in: whey, casein, soy protein isolate
Magnesium required for vitamin D metabolism: needed by enzymes that convert D to its active form (CYP2R1, CYP27B1); Mg deficiency can cause vitamin D resistance; supplementing D without adequate Mg may be ineffective; Mg also needed for vitamin D binding protein transport
Primary extracellular cation; maintains osmotic pressure and fluid balance; essential for nerve impulse transmission (sodium channels generate action potentials); muscle contraction; nutrient absorption (sodium-glucose cotransporter); acid-base balance; blood pressure regulation; Na+/K+-ATPase pump drives many cellular processes
Oxygen transport (hemoglobin in RBCs, myoglobin in muscle); electron transport chain (cytochromes); energy production (ATP synthesis); DNA synthesis; immune function; neurotransmitter synthesis (dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine); exists in two forms: heme (Fe2+, animal sources) and non-heme (Fe3+, plant sources)
Amino Supplements Deck
What is the maximum rate of protein absorption?
Absorption rate varies by source: whey ~10 g/hour, casein ~6 g/hour, cooked egg ~3 g/hour, raw egg ~1.4 g/hour; but the body can absorb essentially unlimited protein (just takes longer); the real limit is MPS stimulation per meal (~20-40 g optimally stimulates MPS); excess is oxidized for energy, not wasted
Generally safe at doses of 3 g/day for short-term (2-4 weeks); long-term safety unknown; may cause: irritability, headache, and increased libido; not recommended for teenagers (hormonal effects); limited research beyond 12-16 weeks
Chemically identical; glutamate bound in protein vs free glutamate; MSG is sodium salt of glutamic acid; body metabolizes identically; concerns about MSG sensitivity but research shows most people tolerate normal amounts
Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase: converts 5,10-MTHF to 5-MTHF (active folate for methylation); C677T polymorphism: homozygous (TT, ~10-15% of population) reduces enzyme activity by ~70%; A1298C: reduces activity ~30-40%; consequences: elevated homocysteine, reduced methylation, potential increased risk for cardiovascular disease, neural tube defects, depression; managed with methylfolate (not folic acid) and methylcobalamin
Amino Supplements Deck
What safety considerations apply to valine supplementation?
Goiter (thyroid enlargement), hypothyroidism (fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, dry skin, constipation); in pregnancy: cretinism (severe intellectual disability, growth retardation, deaf-mutism); most preventable cause of intellectual disability worldwide; iodine deficiency disorders affect ~2 billion people globally
Insulin secretion reduces competing LNAAs (increases tryptophan/LNAA ratio); vitamin B6 required for 5-HTP to serotonin; magnesium and B5 cofactors; stress/inflammation shunts tryptophan to kynurenine pathway; exercise can increase brain tryptophan uptake
Generally safe at doses up to 20 g/day (as part of BCAA blend); caution in maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) - can cause neurological damage; very high doses may cause: fatigue, increased ammonia, and gastrointestinal distress; kidney disease caution
Increases brain serotonin → melatonin; studies show reduced sleep latency, improved sleep quality; effective doses: 500-1500 mg taken 30-60 min before bed; enhanced with carbohydrates (insulin increases BBB transport); may improve slow-wave sleep
Amino Supplements Deck
How does vitamin C interact with iron absorption?
Reduces ferric iron (Fe3+) to ferrous iron (Fe2+) in the gut, increasing non-heme iron absorption by 2-6x; most effective when consumed simultaneously with iron-rich foods; 100 mg vitamin C can increase iron absorption from a meal by 67%; important for vegetarians and those with iron deficiency
Fish oil (triglyceride form, standard); concentrated fish oil (ethyl ester, higher EPA/DHA per capsule); re-esterified triglyceride (rTG, best absorption); krill oil (phospholipid-bound, includes astaxanthin); algal oil (vegan DHA, some EPA); cod liver oil (includes vitamins A and D); prescription (Vascepa: pure EPA icosapent ethyl)
15 mg/kg body weight (~1.0-1.2 g/day for 70-80 kg adult); typical intake 2-4 g/day in Western diet; may be higher in athletes or during recovery from illness/wounds; adequate intake critical for connective tissue repair
Creatine monohydrate (gold standard, most studied, cheapest); micronized monohydrate (finer particles, better mixing); creatine HCl (higher solubility, lower dose claimed); buffered creatine (Kre-Alkalyn, no proven advantage); creatine ethyl ester (inferior, converts to creatinine); creatine magnesium chelate
Amino Supplements Deck
What are lysine's roles in bone health?
Activates matrix Gla protein (MGP) via carboxylation; carboxylated MGP is the most potent inhibitor of vascular calcification; uncarboxylated MGP (from K2 insufficiency) associated with arterial stiffness; Rotterdam Study: high K2 intake reduced coronary heart disease risk by 50% over 10 years
Enhances calcium absorption and renal conservation; increases collagen matrix for bone mineralization; reduces urinary calcium excretion; may prevent osteoporosis; synergistic with vitamin D and calcium
EPA+DHA: fatty fish (salmon: 1.5-2.2 g per 3.5 oz, mackerel, sardines, anchovies, herring), fish oil, krill oil, algal oil (vegan DHA source); ALA: flaxseeds (6.7 g/oz), chia seeds, hemp seeds, walnuts, canola oil, soybeans; wild fish generally higher in omega-3 than farmed
Adults 19-50: 1.3 mg/day; >50: 1.5-1.7 mg/day; upper limit: 100 mg/day (neuropathy risk above this); PLP form preferred for supplements; at-risk: elderly, alcoholics, autoimmune conditions, kidney disease, oral contraceptive users, isoniazid (TB drug) users; functional deficiency may be more common than biochemical deficiency
Amino Supplements Deck
What safety considerations apply to glutamine supplementation?
Potatoes (926 mg per medium), sweet potatoes, bananas (422 mg), spinach, avocado (708 mg), white beans (1004 mg/cup), salmon, yogurt, acorn squash, coconut water, dried apricots, lentils, beet greens; processing and cooking in water reduces potassium content
Generally safe up to 150 mg/kg/day; avoid in hyperthyroidism (may increase thyroid hormone production); caution with MAO inhibitors (tyramine-related hypertensive crisis risk); may interact with L-DOPA (Parkinson's medication); avoid in melanoma (melanin precursor); split large doses to avoid GI discomfort
Non-polar aliphatic amino acid with a methyl side chain (CH3); simplest amino acid besides glycine; exists as L-alanine (proteinogenic) and D-alanine (bacterial cell walls); molecular formula C3H7NO2
Generally safe at doses up to 30 g/day; high doses may cause: GI distress (bloating, gas), and in susceptible individuals: risk of hepatic encephalopathy (liver disease - can't clear ammonia); caution in: Reye's syndrome, severe liver disease, and some cancers (may fuel tumor growth - theoretical)
Amino Supplements Deck
What are the safety considerations for tyrosine?
Generally safe up to 150 mg/kg/day; avoid in hyperthyroidism (may increase thyroid hormone production); caution with MAO inhibitors (tyramine-related hypertensive crisis risk); may interact with L-DOPA (Parkinson's medication); avoid in melanoma (melanin precursor); split large doses to avoid GI discomfort
Cross-linking of collagen and elastin (via hydroxylysine formation); carnitine synthesis (transport fatty acids into mitochondria); calcium absorption and retention; immune function (antibody production); hormone and enzyme production
Dietary B12 released by stomach acid → binds R-protein (haptocorrin) → pancreatic enzymes release B12 → binds intrinsic factor (IF, from parietal cells) → B12-IF complex absorbed in terminal ileum via cubilin receptor; requires: adequate stomach acid, IF production, pancreatic function, and intact ileum; any disruption → deficiency
Rhodiola: more stimulating/energizing, better for acute stress and mental fatigue, faster onset (single dose effective), morning use; Ashwagandha: more calming/restorative, better for chronic stress and anxiety, builds over weeks, evening use compatible; both reduce cortisol; can be combined (rhodiola AM, ashwagandha PM); rhodiola may interfere with sleep if taken late; ashwagandha promotes sleep
Amino Supplements Deck
What are the forms of vitamin K?
Synergistic with: creatine (muscle building), beta-alanine (performance), carbohydrates (insulin spike enhances uptake), vitamin B6 (BCAA metabolism); Additive with: glutamine (recovery), HMB (anti-catabolic); May compete with: tryptophan (BBB transport), other LNAAs
Sweet potatoes, carrots, pumpkin, spinach, kale, collard greens, cantaloupe, apricots, red peppers; beta-carotene is most efficient converter to retinol (12:1 ratio)
K1 (phylloquinone) from green leafy vegetables; K2 (menaquinones, MK-4 through MK-13) from fermented foods and bacterial synthesis; K3 (menadione, synthetic, not recommended); K2 subtypes: MK-4 (short-acting, animal sources) and MK-7 (long-acting, natto, fermented foods)
Vitamin K + warfarin (destabilizes INR); St. John's Wort + many drugs (induces CYP3A4); calcium/magnesium/iron + antibiotics (chelation, separate 2+ hours); 5-HTP/tryptophan + SSRIs (serotonin syndrome); vitamin E + blood thinners (bleeding risk); NAC + nitroglycerin (hypotension); grapefruit extract + statins/many drugs (CYP3A4 inhibition); CoQ10 may reduce warfarin efficacy; always disclose supplements to healthcare providers
Amino Supplements Deck
What are the symptoms of lysine deficiency?
Thiamine (B1) deficiency; "wet beriberi": cardiovascular symptoms (heart failure, edema); "dry beriberi": neurological symptoms (peripheral neuropathy, muscle wasting); Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (thiamine deficiency in alcoholics); prevented by adequate thiamine
Activates osteocalcin (bone Gla protein) via carboxylation; carboxylated osteocalcin binds calcium and incorporates it into bone matrix; MK-4 at 45 mg/day reduced fractures in Japanese studies; MK-7 at 180 mcg/day improved bone mineral density in 3-year Dutch trial
Fatigue, nausea, dizziness, anemia, impaired growth, hair loss, reproductive disorders, reduced wound healing, decreased carnitine levels, and weakened connective tissue; severe deficiency causes kwashiorkor-like syndrome
Amino acid panel (plasma/urine): identifies deficiencies, metabolic disorders; Homocysteine (methylation, B12/folate/B6 status); Methylmalonic acid (MMA, specific for B12); Organic acids (urine: functional vitamin/mineral status); Omega-3 index (RBC EPA+DHA); 25(OH)D (vitamin D); Ferritin + CRP (iron, check inflammation); RBC magnesium (more accurate than serum); ceruloplasmin + serum copper
Amino Supplements Deck
How do omega-3s affect cardiovascular health?
Vitamin C deficiency disease; develops after 1-3 months of intake <10 mg/day; symptoms: fatigue, swollen/bleeding gums, petechiae, poor wound healing, corkscrew hairs, joint pain; severe: tooth loss, hemorrhage, death; historically common in sailors
Reduce triglycerides (25-30% at 2-4 g/day); mild blood pressure reduction; anti-arrhythmic (reduce sudden cardiac death); anti-thrombotic (reduce platelet aggregation); anti-inflammatory (reduce endothelial dysfunction); REDUCE-IT trial: 4 g/day icosapent ethyl reduced cardiovascular events by 25% in statin-treated patients
Tryptophan → 5-HTP (tryptophan hydroxylase, rate-limiting) → serotonin (aromatic AADC) → melatonin (AANAT + HIOMT in pineal gland); supplemental tryptophan (1-3 g before bed) increases sleep latency and quality; works best with carbohydrate (improves BBB transport); slower onset than 5-HTP but more physiological; L-tryptophan banned 1989-2005 (EMS contamination, manufacturing issue, not inherent toxicity)
General health: 500-2000 mg/day; Cardiovascular support: 1-6 g/day (divided); Exercise performance: 1-3 g pre-workout; Upper limit not officially established; doses up to 6 g/day used safely in studies; found in energy drinks at ~1000 mg per serving
Amino Supplements Deck
What is Coenzyme Q10 and what is its role in the body?
L-valine powder/capsules (rarely used alone); BCAA blends (2:1:1, 3:1:1, 4:1:1 leucine:isoleucine:valine); intravenous amino acid solutions; protein powders; pre-workout supplements often include BCAAs
Depression (L-phenylalanine component), chronic pain management (D-phenylalanine inhibits carboxypeptidase A, slowing enkephalin degradation), vitiligo (stimulates melanin production), Parkinson's (tyrosine precursor), and ADHD; typical dose: 500-1500 mg/day divided
Tyrosine replenishes depleted catecholamines (addresses root cause under stress); caffeine blocks adenosine receptors (masks fatigue); tyrosine more effective for sustained stress/sleep deprivation; caffeine better for acute alertness; potentially synergistic combination; tyrosine lacks caffeine's tolerance and withdrawal issues
Fat-soluble quinone (ubiquinone) synthesized endogenously from tyrosine and mevalonate pathway; essential component of mitochondrial electron transport chain (Complex I → III shuttle); required for ~95% of cellular ATP production; also a potent lipid-soluble antioxidant; highest concentrations in heart, liver, kidneys, and pancreas
Amino Supplements Deck
What are the safety concerns with long-term high-dose BCAA supplementation?
May cause amino acid imbalances (reduce other amino acids); very high doses (>60 g/day long-term) linked to insulin resistance in animal studies; may increase ammonia production; caution in: ALS (mixed research), kidney disease, liver disease (impaired BCAA metabolism); generally safe at 20-30 g/day for healthy adults
Meta-analyses (Miller 2005) suggested high-dose (>400 IU/day) may increase all-cause mortality; SELECT trial showed no prostate cancer prevention; however, methodological concerns in meta-analyses; gamma-tocopherol and tocotrienols may have distinct benefits overlooked in alpha-tocopherol-only trials
Group of eight fat-soluble compounds: four tocopherols (alpha, beta, gamma, delta) and four tocotrienols (alpha, beta, gamma, delta); alpha-tocopherol is the most biologically active and preferentially retained in the body via alpha-tocopherol transfer protein (alpha-TTP) in liver
Precursor for glycine (one-carbon metabolism), phospholipid synthesis (phosphatidylserine), protein synthesis, sphingolipid synthesis (myelin), and purine/pyrimidine synthesis (nucleotides)