Critical Thinking Logic Practice Exam

Question 1 Critical Thinking Logic

What is anecdotal evidence?

Assuming the truth lies between two positions when one may simply be correct. Personal stories used as proof rather than statistical evidence. The view that only one's own mind is sure to exist. A statement true in all interpretations.

Question 2 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the ship of Theseus?

The belief that the world is fair, leading to victim-blaming. Interpreting others' arguments in their strongest reasonable form. NOT (P AND Q) = NOT P OR NOT Q; NOT (P OR Q) = NOT P AND NOT Q. A thought experiment about identity: is a ship still the same after every part is replaced?

Question 3 Critical Thinking Logic

What is hindsight bias?

Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. Balancing simplification (bias) against capturing variability (variance) in beliefs. The "I knew it all along" effect after events occur. Pursuing inquiry despite difficulty.

Question 4 Critical Thinking Logic

What is holism?

The view that systems should be understood as integrated wholes. Allowing oneself to behave unethically after doing something virtuous. Discrediting an opponent before they speak so their argument is dismissed. Judging probability by how easily examples come to mind.

Question 5 Critical Thinking Logic

What is conjunction in logic?

P AND Q: true only if both P and Q are true. A relationship where one event causes another. Selecting evidence that supports a conclusion while ignoring contradicting evidence. Attributing successes to oneself and failures to external factors.

Question 6 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the replication crisis?

Arguing something is right because it has long been done that way. Fast, intuitive, automatic thinking (Kahneman). The ongoing finding that many published scientific findings cannot be replicated. A thought experiment about whether to redirect a runaway trolley to kill one person rather than five.

Question 7 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the appeal to emotion?

Manipulating emotions to win acceptance of an argument rather than using evidence. True information shared to cause harm (e.g., doxxing). A relationship where one event causes another. When complex properties arise from simple interactions, not reducible to parts.

Question 8 Critical Thinking Logic

What is skepticism?

True information shared to cause harm (e.g., doxxing). Doubting claims to knowledge without sufficient evidence. A deductively valid argument with all true premises. Weighing recent events more heavily than distant ones.

Question 9 Critical Thinking Logic

What is appeal to fear?

An example that disproves a generalization. A specific appeal to emotion using fear to persuade. Building explanations too tightly fit to limited evidence. The "I knew it all along" effect after events occur.

Question 10 Critical Thinking Logic

What is a fact?

"If Q then P" (not logically equivalent). Balancing simplification (bias) against capturing variability (variance) in beliefs. Assuming the very point at issue in the premise. A statement that can be verified as true.

Question 11 Critical Thinking Logic

What is intellectual honesty?

Truthful acknowledgment of evidence and arguments. Reasoning from specific observations to a probable general conclusion. Citing an authority's opinion as evidence, especially in areas outside their expertise. Implication is a logical relationship between statements; inference is the act of concluding.

Question 12 Critical Thinking Logic

What is normative claim?

A classical definition of knowledge: belief, true, and justified. When the truth of one statement requires the truth of another. A flaw in the logical structure of an argument. A statement about how things ought to be.

Question 13 Critical Thinking Logic

What is misinformation?

A statement true in all interpretations. The ability of others to obtain the same results from the same data and methods. False information shared without intent to deceive. All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Question 14 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the difference between inference and implication?

Acting in accordance with reason and evidence. Implication is a logical relationship between statements; inference is the act of concluding. Holding beliefs rigidly without examining alternatives. Confirming claims across multiple independent sources.

Question 15 Critical Thinking Logic

What is reification?

Treating an abstract concept as a concrete thing. Doubting claims to knowledge without sufficient evidence. If P then Q; not P; therefore not Q. (Invalid.) A testable proposed explanation.

Question 16 Critical Thinking Logic

What is whataboutism?

Deriving moral claims from natural facts. Reduced likelihood of helping when others are present. Deflecting criticism by pointing to someone else's wrongdoing. The strongest version of an opposing argument, opposed to a strawman.

Question 17 Critical Thinking Logic

What is censorship?

The view that beliefs are justified by their coherence with other beliefs. A statement false in all interpretations. The suppression of information deemed objectionable. "This sentence is false." If true, then false; if false, then true.

Question 18 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the framing effect?

A personal judgment or belief not necessarily verifiable. Misidentifying a cause. Verifying claims against authoritative sources. How information's presentation influences decisions.

Question 19 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the horn effect?

An argument where the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises. The evaluation of scholarly work by experts before publication. The negative version of the halo effect. A theory is scientific only if it makes predictions that could be shown false.

Question 20 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the is-ought distinction (Hume)?

A precise definition specifying how a concept is measured. Cases where someone has justified true belief but lacks knowledge, challenging classical definitions. You cannot logically derive what ought to be from what is. Excessive, uncritical zeal for a cause.

Question 21 Critical Thinking Logic

What is deductive reasoning?

The tendency for extreme observations to be closer to average on subsequent measurements. Reasoning from general premises to a specific, necessarily true conclusion (if premises are true). The disciplined process of analyzing, evaluating, and reasoning about information to form well-justified beliefs and decisions. Putting oneself in others' shoes to understand their reasoning.

Question 22 Critical Thinking Logic

What is groupthink?

Proof by assuming the contrary and deriving an absurdity. An example that disproves a generalization. The evaluation of scholarly work by experts before publication. A pattern where group cohesion suppresses critical evaluation.

Question 23 Critical Thinking Logic

What is denial?

Refusing to accept reality despite evidence. Ignoring statistical base rates in favor of specific information. Verifying claims against authoritative sources. Mental discomfort from holding contradictory beliefs.

Question 24 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the sunk cost fallacy?

Focusing on character traits that constitute a good life. Obtaining similar results via a new study. Continuing an endeavor due to already invested costs rather than future value. Allowing oneself to behave unethically after doing something virtuous.

Question 25 Critical Thinking Logic

What is utilitarian reasoning?

Proof by assuming the contrary and deriving an absurdity. An assessment based on personal or cultural values. The ability of others to obtain the same results from the same data and methods. Judging actions by their consequences for overall well-being.

Question 26 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the perfect solution fallacy?

Rejecting a solution because it's not perfect. A deductively valid argument with all true premises. A relationship where one event causes another. Assuming that because B followed A, A caused B.

Question 27 Critical Thinking Logic

What is availability bias?

The ongoing finding that many published scientific findings cannot be replicated. Arguing something is true because many people believe it. Judging probability by how easily examples come to mind. Drawing a broad conclusion from too few examples.

Question 28 Critical Thinking Logic

What is regression to the mean?

The strongest version of an opposing argument, opposed to a strawman. The disciplined process of analyzing, evaluating, and reasoning about information to form well-justified beliefs and decisions. An argument whose conclusion must be true if the premises are true. The tendency for extreme observations to be closer to average on subsequent measurements.

Question 29 Critical Thinking Logic

What is logic?

Reasoning to reach a preferred conclusion rather than the most accurate one. A statement true in some interpretations and false in others. Misidentifying a cause. The study of valid inference and the principles of correct reasoning.

Question 30 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the liar paradox?

"This sentence is false." If true, then false; if false, then true. If P then Q; not P; therefore not Q. (Invalid.) Judging an idea by its source rather than its merits. Judging actions by their consequences for overall well-being.

Question 31 Critical Thinking Logic

What is Hitchens's razor?

Assuming that because B followed A, A caused B. What can be asserted without evidence can be dismissed without evidence. A deductively valid argument with all true premises. The skill of understanding and interpreting text.

Question 32 Critical Thinking Logic

What is malinformation?

Arguing something is right because it has long been done that way. A hypothetical scenario used to explore ideas. Judging actions by their consequences for overall well-being. True information shared to cause harm (e.g., doxxing).

Question 33 Critical Thinking Logic

What is recency bias?

Explaining things by their ends or purposes. Weighing recent events more heavily than distant ones. "This sentence is false." If true, then false; if false, then true. Judging probability by how easily examples come to mind.

Question 34 Critical Thinking Logic

What is circular reasoning?

Assuming that because B followed A, A caused B. Changing the criteria of an argument once they are met. False information shared without intent to deceive. An argument where the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises.

Question 35 Critical Thinking Logic

What is bias detection?

Manipulating someone into doubting their own perception. Believing past random events influence future independent ones. Recognizing assumptions, prejudices, or perspectives shaping information. An example that disproves a generalization.

Question 36 Critical Thinking Logic

What is loaded question?

Verifying claims against authoritative sources. An example that disproves a generalization. A question containing an unjustified assumption (e.g., "Have you stopped lying?"). P OR Q: true if either P or Q (or both) is true.

Question 37 Critical Thinking Logic

What is inductive reasoning?

Reasoning from specific observations to a probable general conclusion. Arguing that something is good because it is natural. A preference for the current state of affairs. An error in reasoning that undermines an argument.

Question 38 Critical Thinking Logic

What is identity in logic?

A table showing all truth-value combinations of inputs to a logical expression. A systematic approach: observation, hypothesis, experimentation, analysis, conclusion. Slow, deliberate, effortful reasoning (Kahneman). A=A; everything is identical to itself.

Question 39 Critical Thinking Logic

What is pragmatism?

Pursuing inquiry despite difficulty. The view that the truth of beliefs lies in their practical consequences. Willingness to defend unpopular but reasoned views. False information shared with intent to deceive.

Question 40 Critical Thinking Logic

What is open-mindedness?

Arguing a claim is true because it hasn't been proven false (or vice versa). Willingness to consider new ideas and reconsider beliefs. Weighing recent events more heavily than distant ones. Assuming the middle of two positions is always correct.

Question 41 Critical Thinking Logic

What is a valid argument?

Holding beliefs rigidly without examining alternatives. Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. A flaw in the logical structure of an argument. An argument whose conclusion must be true if the premises are true.

Question 42 Critical Thinking Logic

What is pseudoscience?

Proof by assuming the contrary and deriving an absurdity. Claims presented as scientific but lacking proper methodology or evidence. The view that systems should be understood as integrated wholes. Building explanations too tightly fit to limited evidence.

Question 43 Critical Thinking Logic

What is an informal fallacy?

The statement an argument seeks to establish. Reasoning to reach a preferred conclusion rather than the most accurate one. Confirming claims across multiple independent sources. An error in content or context, not structure.

Question 44 Critical Thinking Logic

What is emergence?

A statistical association between two variables. When complex properties arise from simple interactions, not reducible to parts. ∀ ("for all"). The ability of others to obtain the same results from the same data and methods.

Question 45 Critical Thinking Logic

What is ad hominem?

Underestimating time and resources needed to complete tasks. Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. Logic with quantifiers and predicates over variables. Same as Occam's razor: prefer simpler explanations.

Question 46 Critical Thinking Logic

What is implication in logic?

Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. The branch of philosophy concerning knowledge — its nature, origins, and limits. If P then Q: false only when P is true and Q is false. Focusing on entities that "survived" and ignoring those that didn't.

Question 47 Critical Thinking Logic

What is justified true belief?

A classical definition of knowledge: belief, true, and justified. Slow, deliberate, effortful reasoning (Kahneman). The suppression of information deemed objectionable. Interpreting others' arguments in their strongest reasonable form.

Question 48 Critical Thinking Logic

What is the slippery slope fallacy?

The view that some contradictions can be true. Excluding counterexamples by arbitrarily redefining a category. Doubting claims to knowledge without sufficient evidence. Arguing that one event will set off an inevitable chain of disastrous events without justification.

Question 49 Critical Thinking Logic

What is foundationalism?

The view that beliefs rest on basic, self-justifying beliefs. An argument where the conclusion could be false even if the premises are true. A flaw in the logical structure of an argument. Manipulating emotions to win acceptance of an argument rather than using evidence.

Question 50 Critical Thinking Logic

What is deontological reasoning?

Overemphasizing personal traits and underestimating situational factors when judging others. Mistaking a correlation for a causal relationship. Judging actions by adherence to rules or duties, regardless of consequences. Judging an idea by its source rather than its merits.