Ethics And Moral Philosophy Practice Exam

Question 1 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What ethical issues surround organ transplantation?

Key issues include consent (opt-in vs. opt-out systems), fair allocation of scarce organs, the definition of death, and the ethics of organ markets or living donation. Rawls's two principles are: (1) the Equal Liberty Principle — each person has equal right to basic liberties; (2) the Difference Principle — social and economic inequalities are permissible only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society. Contractualism (associated with T.M. Scanlon) holds that an action is wrong if it violates principles that no one could reasonably reject as a basis for general agreement. Non-maleficence (from the Latin primum non nocere — "first, do no harm") requires that healthcare providers avoid actions that cause unnecessary harm to patients.

Question 2 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is applied ethics?

Deontology is an ethical theory that judges the morality of actions based on their adherence to rules, duties, or obligations, rather than their consequences. Environmental ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines the moral relationship between humans and the natural environment, including duties toward ecosystems, species, and future generations. Applied ethics is the branch of ethics that addresses specific, practical moral issues in areas such as medicine, business, technology, and the environment. The naturalistic fallacy, identified by G.E. Moore, is the error of defining moral properties (like "good") in terms of natural properties (like pleasure), conflating what is with what ought to be.

Question 3 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is moral luck?

Immanuel Kant is the most prominent deontological philosopher, known for his work Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785). Moral luck (discussed by Thomas Nagel and Bernard Williams) refers to the way factors beyond a person's control influence moral judgments about them, challenging the idea that morality depends only on will. Deep ecology, founded by Arne Næss, advocates for the intrinsic value of all living beings regardless of their utility to humans, and calls for fundamental changes in how humans relate to nature. Phronesis (practical wisdom) is the intellectual virtue that enables a person to discern the right course of action in particular circumstances, central to Aristotle's virtue ethics.

Question 4 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the difference between consequentialism and deontology?

The precautionary principle states that if an action has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or environment, the burden of proof falls on those taking the action, even in the absence of full scientific certainty. Anthropocentrism is the view that human beings are the central or most important entities in the world, and that the environment has value only insofar as it serves human interests. Consequentialism judges actions by their outcomes (the ends justify the means), while deontology judges actions by their adherence to rules or duties, regardless of the consequences. Robert Nozick's entitlement theory holds that a distribution of resources is just if it arises from just acquisitions and voluntary transfers, opposing redistributive taxation as a violation of individual rights.

Question 5 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the footbridge variant of the trolley problem?

Aristotle is the founding figure, who developed virtue ethics in his Nicomachean Ethics, centering on the concept of eudaimonia (flourishing). In the footbridge variant, you must push a large person off a bridge to stop the trolley and save five people. Most people find this less permissible than flipping a switch, highlighting the moral difference between doing and allowing. Preference utilitarianism defines the good as the satisfaction of people's preferences or interests, rather than maximizing pleasure. It is associated with philosophers like R.M. Hare and Peter Singer. Utilitarianism is an ethical theory stating that the best action is the one that maximizes overall utility, typically defined as happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people.

Question 6 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is Kant's concept of duty (Pflicht)?

Immanuel Kant is the most prominent deontological philosopher, known for his work Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785). For Kant, duty (Pflicht) is the necessity of acting from respect for the moral law. An action has moral worth only when performed from duty, not merely in conformity with it. The doctrine of double effect holds that it can be morally permissible to cause a harmful effect (like one death) as a foreseen side effect of a good action, but not as a direct means to that good end. Mill introduced a qualitative distinction between pleasures, arguing that intellectual and moral pleasures (higher pleasures) are superior to mere physical pleasures (lower pleasures).

Question 7 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the first formulation of the categorical imperative?

The original position is a hypothetical scenario in which rational agents choose principles of justice from behind a veil of ignorance, not knowing their own social position, talents, or values. Key issues include consent (opt-in vs. opt-out systems), fair allocation of scarce organs, the definition of death, and the ethics of organ markets or living donation. The Formula of Universal Law: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." Anthropocentrism is the view that human beings are the central or most important entities in the world, and that the environment has value only insofar as it serves human interests.

Question 8 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is communitarianism as a response to liberal justice theories?

The harm principle, articulated by John Stuart Mill, states that the only legitimate reason for restricting individual liberty is to prevent harm to others. Communitarianism (e.g., Michael Sandel, Charles Taylor) criticizes liberal justice for assuming an unencumbered self and argues that moral identity and justice are rooted in community and shared values. Mill introduced a qualitative distinction between pleasures, arguing that intellectual and moral pleasures (higher pleasures) are superior to mere physical pleasures (lower pleasures). Consequentialism judges actions by their outcomes (the ends justify the means), while deontology judges actions by their adherence to rules or duties, regardless of the consequences.

Question 9 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is informed consent?

In the footbridge variant, you must push a large person off a bridge to stop the trolley and save five people. Most people find this less permissible than flipping a switch, highlighting the moral difference between doing and allowing. Moral particularism (associated with Jonathan Dancy) holds that moral judgments should be made on a case-by-case basis, denying that general moral principles can be applied to all situations. Consequentialism judges actions by their outcomes (the ends justify the means), while deontology judges actions by their adherence to rules or duties, regardless of the consequences. Informed consent is the process by which a patient voluntarily agrees to a medical procedure after being provided with adequate information about risks, benefits, and alternatives.

Question 10 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the precautionary principle?

The precautionary principle states that if an action has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or environment, the burden of proof falls on those taking the action, even in the absence of full scientific certainty. Aristotle is the founding figure, who developed virtue ethics in his Nicomachean Ethics, centering on the concept of eudaimonia (flourishing). Animal rights ethics holds that animals have inherent moral rights and should not be treated merely as means to human ends. Tom Regan argued that animals are "subjects-of-a-life" with inherent value. Aldo Leopold's land ethic states: "A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise."

Question 11 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

Name three cardinal virtues identified by Aristotle.

Alasdair MacIntyre revived virtue ethics in After Virtue (1981), arguing that modern moral philosophy had lost coherence and advocating a return to Aristotelian tradition embedded in social practices. The harm principle, articulated by John Stuart Mill, states that the only legitimate reason for restricting individual liberty is to prevent harm to others. Three cardinal virtues include courage (bravery in the face of fear), temperance (moderation in desires), and justice (giving others their due). Robert Nozick's entitlement theory holds that a distribution of resources is just if it arises from just acquisitions and voluntary transfers, opposing redistributive taxation as a violation of individual rights.

Question 12 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is Peter Singer's argument for animal liberation?

Contractualism (associated with T.M. Scanlon) holds that an action is wrong if it violates principles that no one could reasonably reject as a basis for general agreement. Peter Singer argues in Animal Liberation (1975) that the capacity to suffer is the morally relevant criterion, and that ignoring animal suffering constitutes speciesism — a prejudice analogous to racism. The Formula of Humanity: "Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never merely as a means." The tragedy of the commons, described by Garrett Hardin (1968), occurs when individuals acting in self-interest overexploit a shared resource, leading to its depletion for everyone.

Question 13 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is biocentrism?

Beneficence requires healthcare providers to act in ways that promote the well-being of patients, actively contributing to their health and welfare. Peter Singer argues in Animal Liberation (1975) that the capacity to suffer is the morally relevant criterion, and that ignoring animal suffering constitutes speciesism — a prejudice analogous to racism. Biocentrism holds that all living beings have inherent moral value, not just humans. It was articulated by Paul Taylor in Respect for Nature (1986). Communitarianism (e.g., Michael Sandel, Charles Taylor) criticizes liberal justice for assuming an unencumbered self and argues that moral identity and justice are rooted in community and shared values.

Question 14 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is deep ecology?

Emotivism is a meta-ethical theory (associated with A.J. Ayer and C.L. Stevenson) holding that moral statements do not express propositions but rather emotional attitudes — e.g., "Stealing is wrong" means "Boo to stealing!" Nozick argues that Rawls's difference principle violates individual liberty by redistributing justly acquired holdings; he uses the Wilt Chamberlain argument to show that free choices naturally disrupt patterned distributions. The precautionary principle states that if an action has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or environment, the burden of proof falls on those taking the action, even in the absence of full scientific certainty. Deep ecology, founded by Arne Næss, advocates for the intrinsic value of all living beings regardless of their utility to humans, and calls for fundamental changes in how humans relate to nature.

Question 15 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is emotivism?

Ethical egoism is the normative theory that moral agents ought to act in their own self-interest, even at the expense of others — distinct from psychological egoism, which is a descriptive claim. Moral courage is the willingness to stand up for what is ethically right despite facing personal risk, opposition, or punishment — a virtue closely related to integrity. Emotivism is a meta-ethical theory (associated with A.J. Ayer and C.L. Stevenson) holding that moral statements do not express propositions but rather emotional attitudes — e.g., "Stealing is wrong" means "Boo to stealing!" Moral subjectivism holds that moral statements are true or false relative to the individual; moral claims express personal attitudes or preferences rather than objective facts.

Question 16 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the problem of dirty hands?

The Formula of the Kingdom of Ends: Act as if you were a legislating member of a kingdom in which all rational beings are both lawmakers and subjects. The problem of dirty hands arises when a political leader must perform a morally wrong act (e.g., torture) in order to achieve a greater good, raising the question of whether moral compromise is justified in politics. Moral particularism (associated with Jonathan Dancy) holds that moral judgments should be made on a case-by-case basis, denying that general moral principles can be applied to all situations. For Kant, duty (Pflicht) is the necessity of acting from respect for the moral law. An action has moral worth only when performed from duty, not merely in conformity with it.

Question 17 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is feminist ethics?

Rousseau believed humans are naturally good but corrupted by society. His social contract aims to create a community governed by the general will, preserving freedom through collective self-governance. For Kant, a good will is the only thing that is good without qualification; it is the will that acts from duty and in accordance with the moral law. The Euthyphro dilemma (from Plato) asks: Is an action good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good? Either answer creates problems for divine command theory. Feminist ethics examines how traditional ethical theories have marginalized women's moral experiences and advocates for theories that address gender inequality, power dynamics, and diverse perspectives.

Question 18 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the distinction between intrinsic and instrumental value in environmental ethics?

Intrinsic value means something is valuable in itself, regardless of its usefulness; instrumental value means something is valuable only as a means to some other end. Cloning raises concerns about human dignity, the commodification of life, potential for exploitation, psychological impact on cloned individuals, and challenges to genetic diversity. Utilitarianism can justify sacrificing the rights of a minority if doing so maximizes overall happiness, which conflicts with intuitions about individual rights and justice. The debate centers on whether individuals have a right to die with dignity. Supporters cite autonomy and compassion; opponents argue it violates the sanctity of life and risks abuse.

Question 19 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is ecocentrism?

The Euthyphro dilemma (from Plato) asks: Is an action good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good? Either answer creates problems for divine command theory. Virtue ethics is an ethical theory that emphasizes the role of character and virtues in moral philosophy, focusing on what kind of person one should be rather than on rules or consequences. Ecocentrism extends moral consideration to entire ecosystems, species, and ecological processes, valuing the health and integrity of the biotic community as a whole. Three cardinal virtues include courage (bravery in the face of fear), temperance (moderation in desires), and justice (giving others their due).

Question 20 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is Bentham's felicific calculus?

Nozick argues that Rawls's difference principle violates individual liberty by redistributing justly acquired holdings; he uses the Wilt Chamberlain argument to show that free choices naturally disrupt patterned distributions. Moral particularism (associated with Jonathan Dancy) holds that moral judgments should be made on a case-by-case basis, denying that general moral principles can be applied to all situations. Moral luck (discussed by Thomas Nagel and Bernard Williams) refers to the way factors beyond a person's control influence moral judgments about them, challenging the idea that morality depends only on will. The felicific calculus (or hedonic calculus) is Bentham's method for measuring pleasure and pain using criteria such as intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent.

Question 21 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What ethical issues surround artificial intelligence?

The difference principle states that social and economic inequalities are justified only if they result in compensating benefits for the least advantaged members of society. Distributive justice concerns the fair allocation of resources, opportunities, and burdens among members of a society, addressing questions of wealth, income, and social goods distribution. AI ethics addresses algorithmic bias, privacy, accountability for autonomous decisions, job displacement, the moral status of AI entities, and ensuring transparency in AI systems. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development across three levels: pre-conventional (self-interest), conventional (social conformity), and post-conventional (universal ethical principles).

Question 22 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is moral absolutism?

Moral absolutism holds that certain actions are intrinsically right or wrong, regardless of context, consequences, or cultural norms — moral truths are universal and unchanging. Care ethics (or ethics of care) emphasizes the importance of interpersonal relationships and care as a moral virtue. Developed by Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings, it challenges justice-based approaches. Anthropocentrism is the view that human beings are the central or most important entities in the world, and that the environment has value only insofar as it serves human interests. The four principles are: autonomy (respect for patient self-determination), beneficence (doing good), non-maleficence (avoiding harm), and justice (fair distribution of resources).

Question 23 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the is-ought problem?

The is-ought problem, raised by David Hume, states that one cannot derive moral conclusions (ought statements) solely from factual premises (is statements) without an additional moral premise. The doctrine of double effect holds that it can be morally permissible to cause a harmful effect (like one death) as a foreseen side effect of a good action, but not as a direct means to that good end. Feminist ethics examines how traditional ethical theories have marginalized women's moral experiences and advocates for theories that address gender inequality, power dynamics, and diverse perspectives. Biocentrism holds that all living beings have inherent moral value, not just humans. It was articulated by Paul Taylor in Respect for Nature (1986).

Question 24 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is eudaimonia?

Eudaimonia is often translated as happiness or flourishing; for Aristotle it is the highest human good, achieved by living a life of virtue in accordance with reason. A major criticism is that it leads to moral tolerance of atrocities: if all cultural practices are equally valid, one cannot condemn practices like slavery or genocide in other cultures. In the footbridge variant, you must push a large person off a bridge to stop the trolley and save five people. Most people find this less permissible than flipping a switch, highlighting the moral difference between doing and allowing. The capabilities approach (developed by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum) evaluates well-being by the real freedoms (capabilities) people have to achieve things they value, used in development and justice theory.

Question 25 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the utility monster objection?

Lawrence Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development across three levels: pre-conventional (self-interest), conventional (social conformity), and post-conventional (universal ethical principles). The naturalistic fallacy, identified by G.E. Moore, is the error of defining moral properties (like "good") in terms of natural properties (like pleasure), conflating what is with what ought to be. Proposed by Robert Nozick, the utility monster is a thought experiment where one being derives enormously more pleasure from resources than others, so utilitarianism demands giving it everything — exposing a flaw in the theory. Peter Singer argues in Animal Liberation (1975) that the capacity to suffer is the morally relevant criterion, and that ignoring animal suffering constitutes speciesism — a prejudice analogous to racism.

Question 26 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is restorative justice?

Restorative justice focuses on repairing harm caused by criminal behavior through reconciliation between offenders, victims, and the community, rather than on punishment alone. Communitarianism (e.g., Michael Sandel, Charles Taylor) criticizes liberal justice for assuming an unencumbered self and argues that moral identity and justice are rooted in community and shared values. The Formula of the Kingdom of Ends: Act as if you were a legislating member of a kingdom in which all rational beings are both lawmakers and subjects. Deontology is an ethical theory that judges the morality of actions based on their adherence to rules, duties, or obligations, rather than their consequences.

Question 27 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is cultural relativism?

Cultural relativism holds that moral standards are determined by cultural context, and that what is morally right or wrong varies from society to society with no universal standard. A utilitarian would typically divert the trolley to save five at the cost of one, since it maximizes net lives saved, showing how consequentialist logic can conflict with intuitions about directly harming someone. For Kant, duty (Pflicht) is the necessity of acting from respect for the moral law. An action has moral worth only when performed from duty, not merely in conformity with it. Social contract theory holds that moral and political rules are justified by an agreement (real or hypothetical) among individuals to form a society and accept certain obligations in exchange for social benefits.

Question 28 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the ethical debate around euthanasia?

Deep ecology, founded by Arne Næss, advocates for the intrinsic value of all living beings regardless of their utility to humans, and calls for fundamental changes in how humans relate to nature. Moral courage is the willingness to stand up for what is ethically right despite facing personal risk, opposition, or punishment — a virtue closely related to integrity. The debate centers on whether individuals have a right to die with dignity. Supporters cite autonomy and compassion; opponents argue it violates the sanctity of life and risks abuse. A utilitarian would typically divert the trolley to save five at the cost of one, since it maximizes net lives saved, showing how consequentialist logic can conflict with intuitions about directly harming someone.

Question 29 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What does Kant mean by a good will?

The harm principle, articulated by John Stuart Mill, states that the only legitimate reason for restricting individual liberty is to prevent harm to others. The naturalistic fallacy, identified by G.E. Moore, is the error of defining moral properties (like "good") in terms of natural properties (like pleasure), conflating what is with what ought to be. Robert Nozick's entitlement theory holds that a distribution of resources is just if it arises from just acquisitions and voluntary transfers, opposing redistributive taxation as a violation of individual rights. For Kant, a good will is the only thing that is good without qualification; it is the will that acts from duty and in accordance with the moral law.

Question 30 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is contractualism?

A hypothetical imperative is conditional ("If you want X, do Y"), while a categorical imperative is unconditional — it commands action regardless of personal desires. Jeremy Bentham is considered the founder of classical utilitarianism, introducing the principle of utility in his work An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789). Contractualism (associated with T.M. Scanlon) holds that an action is wrong if it violates principles that no one could reasonably reject as a basis for general agreement. The debate centers on whether individuals have a right to die with dignity. Supporters cite autonomy and compassion; opponents argue it violates the sanctity of life and risks abuse.

Question 31 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the difference between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism?

Rousseau believed humans are naturally good but corrupted by society. His social contract aims to create a community governed by the general will, preserving freedom through collective self-governance. Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action by its consequences, while rule utilitarianism evaluates actions based on whether they follow rules that generally maximize utility. Restorative justice focuses on repairing harm caused by criminal behavior through reconciliation between offenders, victims, and the community, rather than on punishment alone. The felicific calculus (or hedonic calculus) is Bentham's method for measuring pleasure and pain using criteria such as intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent.

Question 32 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is bioethics?

Bioethics is the study of ethical issues arising from advances in biology, medicine, and biotechnology, including topics like euthanasia, genetic engineering, and organ transplantation. The trolley problem was introduced by philosopher Philippa Foot in 1967 and later expanded by Judith Jarvis Thomson. The Euthyphro dilemma (from Plato) asks: Is an action good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good? Either answer creates problems for divine command theory. Eudaimonia is often translated as happiness or flourishing; for Aristotle it is the highest human good, achieved by living a life of virtue in accordance with reason.

Question 33 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is moral responsibility?

Feminist ethics examines how traditional ethical theories have marginalized women's moral experiences and advocates for theories that address gender inequality, power dynamics, and diverse perspectives. Rawls's two principles are: (1) the Equal Liberty Principle — each person has equal right to basic liberties; (2) the Difference Principle — social and economic inequalities are permissible only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society. Deep ecology, founded by Arne Næss, advocates for the intrinsic value of all living beings regardless of their utility to humans, and calls for fundamental changes in how humans relate to nature. Moral responsibility is the status of being deserving of praise or blame for one's actions, typically requiring that the agent acted freely and with knowledge of relevant circumstances.

Question 34 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

Who is considered the founder of classical utilitarianism?

Jeremy Bentham is considered the founder of classical utilitarianism, introducing the principle of utility in his work An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789). Anthropocentrism is the view that human beings are the central or most important entities in the world, and that the environment has value only insofar as it serves human interests. The Formula of the Kingdom of Ends: Act as if you were a legislating member of a kingdom in which all rational beings are both lawmakers and subjects. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development across three levels: pre-conventional (self-interest), conventional (social conformity), and post-conventional (universal ethical principles).

Question 35 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is anthropocentrism in environmental ethics?

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory stating that the best action is the one that maximizes overall utility, typically defined as happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people. Communitarianism (e.g., Michael Sandel, Charles Taylor) criticizes liberal justice for assuming an unencumbered self and argues that moral identity and justice are rooted in community and shared values. Anthropocentrism is the view that human beings are the central or most important entities in the world, and that the environment has value only insofar as it serves human interests. Moral absolutism holds that certain actions are intrinsically right or wrong, regardless of context, consequences, or cultural norms — moral truths are universal and unchanging.

Question 36 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the harm principle?

The harm principle, articulated by John Stuart Mill, states that the only legitimate reason for restricting individual liberty is to prevent harm to others. The debate centers on whether individuals have a right to die with dignity. Supporters cite autonomy and compassion; opponents argue it violates the sanctity of life and risks abuse. Rousseau believed humans are naturally good but corrupted by society. His social contract aims to create a community governed by the general will, preserving freedom through collective self-governance. Divine command theory holds that moral obligations are determined by God's commands; an action is morally right if and only if it is commanded by God.

Question 37 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the principle of non-maleficence?

In the footbridge variant, you must push a large person off a bridge to stop the trolley and save five people. Most people find this less permissible than flipping a switch, highlighting the moral difference between doing and allowing. Non-maleficence (from the Latin primum non nocere — "first, do no harm") requires that healthcare providers avoid actions that cause unnecessary harm to patients. The four principles are: autonomy (respect for patient self-determination), beneficence (doing good), non-maleficence (avoiding harm), and justice (fair distribution of resources). The doctrine of the mean states that moral virtue is a mean between two extremes — one of excess and one of deficiency. For example, courage is the mean between recklessness and cowardice.

Question 38 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is care ethics?

Care ethics (or ethics of care) emphasizes the importance of interpersonal relationships and care as a moral virtue. Developed by Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings, it challenges justice-based approaches. Three cardinal virtues include courage (bravery in the face of fear), temperance (moderation in desires), and justice (giving others their due). Emotivism is a meta-ethical theory (associated with A.J. Ayer and C.L. Stevenson) holding that moral statements do not express propositions but rather emotional attitudes — e.g., "Stealing is wrong" means "Boo to stealing!" The tragedy of the commons, described by Garrett Hardin (1968), occurs when individuals acting in self-interest overexploit a shared resource, leading to its depletion for everyone.

Question 39 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is virtue ethics?

Preference utilitarianism defines the good as the satisfaction of people's preferences or interests, rather than maximizing pleasure. It is associated with philosophers like R.M. Hare and Peter Singer. The is-ought problem, raised by David Hume, states that one cannot derive moral conclusions (ought statements) solely from factual premises (is statements) without an additional moral premise. Virtue ethics is an ethical theory that emphasizes the role of character and virtues in moral philosophy, focusing on what kind of person one should be rather than on rules or consequences. Peter Singer argues in Animal Liberation (1975) that the capacity to suffer is the morally relevant criterion, and that ignoring animal suffering constitutes speciesism — a prejudice analogous to racism.

Question 40 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is moral nihilism?

Retributive justice holds that wrongdoers deserve punishment proportional to their offense, as a matter of moral balance rather than deterrence or rehabilitation. Moral relativism is the view that moral judgments are not universally valid but are relative to cultural, societal, or individual standards. Moral nihilism (or ethical nihilism) is the meta-ethical view that nothing is morally right or wrong; moral statements do not express truths and there are no objective moral facts. Ecocentrism extends moral consideration to entire ecosystems, species, and ecological processes, valuing the health and integrity of the biotic community as a whole.

Question 41 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the difference between rights-based ethics and duty-based ethics?

Rights-based ethics focuses on the entitlements of individuals (e.g., right to life, liberty), while duty-based ethics focuses on the obligations of moral agents to act or refrain from acting in certain ways. The original position is a hypothetical scenario in which rational agents choose principles of justice from behind a veil of ignorance, not knowing their own social position, talents, or values. The veil of ignorance is a thought experiment by John Rawls in which decision-makers are ignorant of their personal circumstances, ensuring the chosen principles of justice are fair and impartial. Mill introduced a qualitative distinction between pleasures, arguing that intellectual and moral pleasures (higher pleasures) are superior to mere physical pleasures (lower pleasures).

Question 42 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the principle of autonomy in bioethics?

The principle of autonomy requires that healthcare professionals respect patients' rights to make informed decisions about their own medical treatment. AI ethics addresses algorithmic bias, privacy, accountability for autonomous decisions, job displacement, the moral status of AI entities, and ensuring transparency in AI systems. Phronesis (practical wisdom) is the intellectual virtue that enables a person to discern the right course of action in particular circumstances, central to Aristotle's virtue ethics. The objection (raised by Rawls and others) argues that utilitarianism ignores the separateness of persons by aggregating welfare, treating individuals as mere vessels for utility rather than as distinct moral agents.

Question 43 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is animal rights ethics?

Virtue ethics is an ethical theory that emphasizes the role of character and virtues in moral philosophy, focusing on what kind of person one should be rather than on rules or consequences. Locke argued that individuals have natural rights (life, liberty, property) and consent to government to protect those rights. If government fails, people have the right to revolt. Animal rights ethics holds that animals have inherent moral rights and should not be treated merely as means to human ends. Tom Regan argued that animals are "subjects-of-a-life" with inherent value. Ecocentrism extends moral consideration to entire ecosystems, species, and ecological processes, valuing the health and integrity of the biotic community as a whole.

Question 44 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is social contract theory?

Social contract theory holds that moral and political rules are justified by an agreement (real or hypothetical) among individuals to form a society and accept certain obligations in exchange for social benefits. Emotivism is a meta-ethical theory (associated with A.J. Ayer and C.L. Stevenson) holding that moral statements do not express propositions but rather emotional attitudes — e.g., "Stealing is wrong" means "Boo to stealing!" Aristotle is the founding figure, who developed virtue ethics in his Nicomachean Ethics, centering on the concept of eudaimonia (flourishing). Utilitarianism can justify sacrificing the rights of a minority if doing so maximizes overall happiness, which conflicts with intuitions about individual rights and justice.

Question 45 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is phronesis?

Phronesis (practical wisdom) is the intellectual virtue that enables a person to discern the right course of action in particular circumstances, central to Aristotle's virtue ethics. The precautionary principle states that if an action has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or environment, the burden of proof falls on those taking the action, even in the absence of full scientific certainty. Nozick argues that Rawls's difference principle violates individual liberty by redistributing justly acquired holdings; he uses the Wilt Chamberlain argument to show that free choices naturally disrupt patterned distributions. A hypothetical imperative is conditional ("If you want X, do Y"), while a categorical imperative is unconditional — it commands action regardless of personal desires.

Question 46 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the ethics of cloning?

Utilitarianism can justify sacrificing the rights of a minority if doing so maximizes overall happiness, which conflicts with intuitions about individual rights and justice. Anthropocentrism is the view that human beings are the central or most important entities in the world, and that the environment has value only insofar as it serves human interests. Cloning raises concerns about human dignity, the commodification of life, potential for exploitation, psychological impact on cloned individuals, and challenges to genetic diversity. A major criticism is that it leads to moral tolerance of atrocities: if all cultural practices are equally valid, one cannot condemn practices like slavery or genocide in other cultures.

Question 47 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is moral relativism?

Distributive justice concerns the fair allocation of resources, opportunities, and burdens among members of a society, addressing questions of wealth, income, and social goods distribution. Moral relativism is the view that moral judgments are not universally valid but are relative to cultural, societal, or individual standards. Deontology is an ethical theory that judges the morality of actions based on their adherence to rules, duties, or obligations, rather than their consequences. Rousseau believed humans are naturally good but corrupted by society. His social contract aims to create a community governed by the general will, preserving freedom through collective self-governance.

Question 48 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is Nozick's entitlement theory of justice?

Moral absolutism holds that certain actions are intrinsically right or wrong, regardless of context, consequences, or cultural norms — moral truths are universal and unchanging. Robert Nozick's entitlement theory holds that a distribution of resources is just if it arises from just acquisitions and voluntary transfers, opposing redistributive taxation as a violation of individual rights. Ethical egoism is the normative theory that moral agents ought to act in their own self-interest, even at the expense of others — distinct from psychological egoism, which is a descriptive claim. Preference utilitarianism defines the good as the satisfaction of people's preferences or interests, rather than maximizing pleasure. It is associated with philosophers like R.M. Hare and Peter Singer.

Question 49 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is speciesism?

Speciesism is the unjustified preferential treatment of members of one's own species over others, a term coined by Richard Ryder and popularized by Peter Singer. Proposed by Robert Nozick, the utility monster is a thought experiment where one being derives enormously more pleasure from resources than others, so utilitarianism demands giving it everything — exposing a flaw in the theory. The felicific calculus (or hedonic calculus) is Bentham's method for measuring pleasure and pain using criteria such as intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. The principle of autonomy requires that healthcare professionals respect patients' rights to make informed decisions about their own medical treatment.

Question 50 Ethics And Moral Philosophy

What is the categorical imperative?

The categorical imperative is Kant's supreme moral principle: act only according to a maxim that you could will to become a universal law without contradiction. Intrinsic value means something is valuable in itself, regardless of its usefulness; instrumental value means something is valuable only as a means to some other end. The original position is a hypothetical scenario in which rational agents choose principles of justice from behind a veil of ignorance, not knowing their own social position, talents, or values. Emotivism is a meta-ethical theory (associated with A.J. Ayer and C.L. Stevenson) holding that moral statements do not express propositions but rather emotional attitudes — e.g., "Stealing is wrong" means "Boo to stealing!"